Capsaicin
Names | |
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Pronunciation | /kæpˈseɪsɪn/ or /kæpˈseɪəsɪn/ |
Preferred IUPAC name
(6E)-N-[(4-Hydroxy-3-methoxyphenyl)methyl]-8-methylnon-6-enamide | |
Other names
(E)-N-(4-Hydroxy-3-methoxybenzyl)-8-methylnon-6-enamide
8-Methyl-N-vanillyl-trans-6-nonenamide trans-8-Methyl-N-vanillylnon-6-enamide (E)-Capsaicin Capsicine Capsicin CPS | |
Identifiers | |
3D model (
JSmol ) |
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2816484 | |
ChEBI | |
ChEMBL | |
ChemSpider | |
DrugBank | |
ECHA InfoCard
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100.006.337 |
EC Number |
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IUPHAR/BPS |
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KEGG | |
PubChem CID
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UNII | |
CompTox Dashboard (EPA)
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Properties | |
C18H27NO3 | |
Molar mass | 305.418 g·mol−1 |
Appearance | Crystalline white powder[1] |
Odor | Highly pungent |
Melting point | 62 to 65 °C (144 to 149 °F; 335 to 338 K) |
Boiling point | 210 to 220 °C (410 to 428 °F; 483 to 493 K) 0.01 Torr |
0.0013 g/100 mL | |
Solubility | |
Vapor pressure | 1.32×10−8 mm Hg at 25 °C[2] |
UV-vis (λmax) | 280 nm |
Structure | |
Monoclinic | |
Pharmacology | |
M02AB01 (WHO) N01BX04 (WHO) | |
License data | |
Legal status | |
Hazards | |
GHS labelling: | |
Danger | |
H301, H302, H315, H318 | |
P264, P270, P280, P301+P310, P301+P312, P302+P352, P305+P351+P338, P310, P321, P330, P332+P313, P362, P405, P501 | |
NFPA 704 (fire diamond) | |
Safety data sheet (SDS) | [2] |
Except where otherwise noted, data are given for materials in their standard state (at 25 °C [77 °F], 100 kPa).
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Capsaicin | |
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Heat | Above peak (pure capsaicin is toxic)[2] |
Scoville scale | 16,000,000[5] SHU |
Capsaicin (8-methyl-N-vanillyl-6-nonenamide) (
Natural function
Capsaicin is present in large quantities in the
The seeds of Capsicum plants are dispersed predominantly by birds. In birds, the TRPV1 channel does not respond to capsaicin or related chemicals but mammalian TRPV1 is very sensitive to it. This is advantageous to the plant, as chili pepper seeds consumed by birds pass through the digestive tract and can germinate later, whereas mammals have molar teeth which destroy such seeds and prevent them from germinating. Thus, natural selection may have led to increasing capsaicin production because it makes the plant less likely to be eaten by animals that do not help it disperse.[9] There is also evidence that capsaicin may have evolved as an anti-fungal agent.[10] The fungal pathogen Fusarium, which is known to infect wild chilies and thereby reduce seed viability, is deterred by capsaicin, which thus limits this form of predispersal seed mortality.
The vanillotoxin-containing venom of a certain tarantula species (Psalmopoeus cambridgei) activates the same pathway of pain as is activated by capsaicin, an example of a shared pathway in both plant and animal anti-mammalian defense.[11]
Uses
Food
Because of the burning sensation caused by capsaicin when it comes in contact with
There has long been a demand for capsaicin-spiced products like
Research and pharmaceutical use
Capsaicin is used as an
It is also used to reduce the symptoms of peripheral
Although capsaicin creams have been used to treat
There is insufficient clinical evidence to determine the role of ingested capsaicin on several human disorders, including obesity,
Pepper spray and pests
Capsaicinoids are also an active ingredient in riot control and personal defense pepper spray agents.[2] When the spray comes in contact with skin, especially eyes or mucous membranes, it produces pain and breathing difficulty in the affected individual.[2]
Capsaicin is also used to deter pests, specifically mammalian pests. Targets of capsaicin repellants include voles, deer, rabbits, squirrels, bears, insects, and attacking dogs.[24] Ground or crushed dried chili pods may be used in birdseed to deter rodents,[25] taking advantage of the insensitivity of birds to capsaicin. The Elephant Pepper Development Trust claims that using chili peppers as a barrier crop can be a sustainable means for rural African farmers to deter elephants from eating their crops.[26]
An article published in the Journal of Environmental Science and Health Part B in 2006 states that "Although hot chili pepper extract is commonly used as a component of household and garden insect-repellent formulas, it is not clear that the capsaicinoid elements of the extract are responsible for its repellency."[27]
The first pesticide product using solely capsaicin as the active ingredient was registered with the U.S. Department of Agriculture in 1962.[24]
Equestrian sports
Capsaicin is a banned substance in equestrian sports because of its hypersensitizing and pain-relieving properties.[28] At the show jumping events of the 2008 Summer Olympics, four horses tested positive for capsaicin, which resulted in disqualification.[28]
Irritant effects
Acute health effects
Capsaicin is a strong irritant requiring proper protective goggles, respirators, and proper hazardous material-handling procedures. Capsaicin takes effect upon skin contact (irritant, sensitizer), eye contact (irritant), ingestion, and inhalation (lung irritant, lung sensitizer). The LD50 in mice is 47.2 mg/kg.[29][30]
Painful exposures to capsaicin-containing peppers are among the most common plant-related exposures presented to poison centers.[31] They cause burning or stinging pain to the skin and, if ingested in large amounts by adults or small amounts by children, can produce nausea, vomiting, abdominal pain, and burning diarrhea. Eye exposure produces intense tearing, pain, conjunctivitis, and blepharospasm.[32]
Treatment after exposure
The primary treatment is removal of the offending substance. Plain water is ineffective at removing capsaicin.[29] Capsaicin is soluble in alcohol, which can be used to clean contaminated items.[29]
When capsaicin is ingested, cold milk may be an effective way to relieve the burning sensation due to caseins in milk, and the water of milk acts as a surfactant, allowing the capsaicin to form an emulsion with it.[33]
Weight loss and regain
As of 2007, there was no evidence showing that weight loss is directly correlated with ingesting capsaicin. Well-designed clinical research had not been performed because the pungency of capsaicin in prescribed doses under research prevented subjects from complying in the study.[34] A 2014 meta-analysis of further trials found weak evidence that consuming capsaicin before a meal might slightly reduce the amount of food consumed, and might drive food preference toward carbohydrates.[35]
Peptic ulcer
One 2006 review concluded that capsaicin may relieve symptoms of a
Mechanism of action
The burning and painful sensations associated with capsaicin result from "defunctionalization" of
Clarifying the mechanisms of capsaicin effects on skin nociceptors was part of awarding the 2021 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine, as it led to the discovery of skin sensors for temperature and touch, and identification of the single gene causing sensitivity to capsaicin.[40][41]
History
The compound was first extracted in impure form in 1816 by Christian Friedrich Bucholz (1770–1818).[42][a] In 1873 German pharmacologist Rudolf Buchheim[52][53][54] (1820–1879) and in 1878 the Hungarian doctor Endre Hőgyes[55][56] stated that "capsicol" (partially purified capsaicin[57]) caused the burning feeling when in contact with mucous membranes and increased secretion of gastric acid.
Capsaicinoids
The most commonly occurring capsaicinoids are capsaicin (69%), dihydrocapsaicin (22%), nordihydrocapsaicin (7%), homocapsaicin (1%), and homodihydrocapsaicin (1%).[58]
Capsaicin and dihydrocapsaicin (both 16.0 million SHU) are the most pungent capsaicinoids. Nordihydrocapsaicin (9.1 million SHU), homocapsaicin and homodihydrocapsaicin (both 8.6 million SHU) are about half as hot.[5]
There are six natural capsaicinoids (table below). Although vanillylamide of n-nonanoic acid (Nonivamide, VNA, also PAVA) is produced synthetically for most applications, it does occur naturally in Capsicum species.[59]
Capsaicinoid name | Abbrev. | Typical relative amount |
Scoville heat units |
Chemical structure |
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Capsaicin | CPS | 69% | 16,000,000 | |
Dihydrocapsaicin | DHC | 22% | 16,000,000 | |
Nordihydrocapsaicin | NDHC | 7% | 9,100,000 | |
Homocapsaicin | HC | 1% | 8,600,000 | |
Homodihydrocapsaicin | HDHC | 1% | 8,600,000 | |
Nonivamide | PAVA | 9,200,000 |
Biosynthesis
History
The general biosynthetic pathway of capsaicin and other capsaicinoids was elucidated in the 1960s by Bennett and Kirby, and Leete and Louden. Radiolabeling studies identified phenylalanine and valine as the precursors to capsaicin.[60][61] Enzymes of the phenylpropanoid pathway, phenylalanine ammonia lyase (PAL), cinnamate 4-hydroxylase (C4H), caffeic acid O-methyltransferase (COMT) and their function in capsaicinoid biosynthesis were identified later by Fujiwake et al.,[62][63] and Sukrasno and Yeoman.[64] Suzuki et al. are responsible for identifying leucine as another precursor to the branched-chain fatty acid pathway.[65] It was discovered in 1999 that pungency of chili peppers is related to higher transcription levels of key enzymes of the phenylpropanoid pathway, phenylalanine ammonia lyase, cinnamate 4-hydroxylase, caffeic acid O-methyltransferase. Similar studies showed high transcription levels in the placenta of chili peppers with high pungency of genes responsible for branched-chain fatty acid pathway.[66]
Biosynthetic pathway
Plants exclusively of the genus Capsicum produce capsaicinoids, which are alkaloids.[67] Capsaicin is believed to be synthesized in the interlocular septum of chili peppers and depends on the gene AT3, which resides at the pun1 locus, and which encodes a putative acyltransferase.[68]
Biosynthesis of the capsaicinoids occurs in the glands of the pepper fruit where capsaicin synthase condenses vanillylamine from the phenylpropanoid pathway with an acyl-CoA moiety produced by the branched-chain fatty acid pathway.[61][69][70][71]
Capsaicin is the most abundant capsaicinoid found in the genus
Evolution
The Capsicum genus splits from Solanaceae 19.6 million years ago, 5.4 million years after the appearance of Solanaceae, and is native only to the Americas.[74] Chilies only started to quickly evolve in the past 2 million years into markedly different species. This evolution can be partially attributed to a key compound found in peppers, 8-methyl-N-vanillyl-6-nonenamide, otherwise known as capsaicin. Capsaicin evolved similarly across species of chilies that produce capsaicin. Its evolution over the course of centuries is due to genetic drift and natural selection, across the genus Capsicum. Despite the fact that chilies within the Capsicum genus are found in diverse environments, the capsaicin found within them all exhibit similar properties that serve as defensive and adaptive features. Capsaicin evolved to preserve the fitness of peppers against fungi infections, insects, and granivorous mammals.[75]
Antifungal properties
Capsaicin acts as an antifungal agent in four primary ways. First, capsaicin inhibits the metabolic rate of the cells that make up the fungal biofilm.[76] This inhibits the area and growth rate of the fungus, since the biofilm creates an area where a fungus can grow and adhere to the chili in which capsaicin is present.[77] Capsaicin also inhibits fungal hyphae formation, which impacts the amount of nutrients that the rest of the fungal body can receive.[78] Thirdly, capsaicin disrupts the structure[79] of fungal cells and the fungal cell membranes. This has consequential negative impacts on the integrity of fungal cells and their ability to survive and proliferate. Additionally, the ergosterol synthesis of growing fungi decreases in relation to the amount of capsaicin present in the growth area. This impacts the fungal cell membrane, and how it is able to reproduce and adapt to stressors in its environment.[80]
Insecticidal properties
Capsaicin deters insects in multiple ways. The first is by deterring insects from laying their eggs on the pepper due to the effects capsaicin has on these insects.[81] Capsaicin can cause intestinal dysplasia upon ingestion, disrupting insect metabolism and causing damage to cell membranes within the insect.[82][83] This in turn disrupts the standard feeding response of insects.
Seed dispersion and deterrents against granivorous mammals
Granivorous mammals pose a risk to the propagation of chilies because their molars grind the seeds of chilies, rendering them unable to grow into new chili plants.[84][9] As a result, modern chilies evolved defense mechanisms to mitigate the risk of granivorous mammals. While capsaicin is present at some level in every part of the pepper, the chemical has its highest concentration in the tissue near the seeds within chilies.[8] Birds are able to eat chilies, then disperse the seeds in their excrement, enabling propagation.[85]
Adaptation to varying moisture levels
Capsaicin is a potent defense mechanism for chilies, but it does come at a cost. Varying levels of capsaicin in chilies currently appear to be caused by an evolutionary split between surviving in dry environments, and having defense mechanisms against fungal growth, insects, and granivorous mammals.
See also
- (see those articles for discussion of other chemicals in them relating to pungency, and eye irritation)
- Capsazepine, capsaicin antagonist
- Iodoresiniferatoxin, an ultrapotent capsaicin antagonist derived from Resiniferatoxin
- Trinidad Moruga Scorpion; some of the world's most capsaicin-rich fruits
- List of capsaicinoids
References
- ^ "Capsaicin". ChemSpider, Royal Society of Chemistry, Cambridge, UK. 2018. Retrieved 9 June 2018.
- ^ a b c d e f g "Capsaicin". PubChem, US National Library of Medicine. 27 May 2023. Retrieved 1 June 2023.
- ^ "Qutenza- capsaicin kit". DailyMed. 10 January 2023. Retrieved 22 February 2023.
- ^ "Drug Approval Package: Qutenza (capsaicin) NDA #022395". U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA). 3 October 2013. Retrieved 22 February 2023.
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- ^ "What Made Chili Peppers So Spicy?". Talk of the Nation. 15 August 2008.
- ^ a b "Chile Information – Frequently Asked Questions". New Mexico State University – College of Agriculture and Home Economics. 2005. Archived from the original on 4 May 2007. Retrieved 17 May 2007.
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- ^ a b c d Gorman J (20 September 2010). "A Perk of Our Evolution: Pleasure in Pain of Chilies". New York Times. Retrieved 16 March 2015.
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- ^ PMID 27367653.
- ^ "FDA Approves New Drug Treatment for Long-Term Pain Relief after Shingles Attacks" (Press release). U.S. Food and Drug Administration. 17 November 2009. Archived from the original on 23 November 2015. Retrieved 5 January 2016.
- ^ "Drug Approval Package: Qutenza (capsaicin) NDA #022395". U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA). 29 June 2010. Retrieved 19 August 2020.
- "Application Number: 22-395: Summary Review" (PDF). FDA Center for Drug Evaluation and Research. 13 November 2009.
- ^ "Qutenza EPAR". European Medicines Agency (EMA). 17 September 2018. Retrieved 19 August 2020.
- ^ Hitt E (9 March 2012). "FDA Turns Down Capsaicin Patch for Painful Neuropathy in HIV". Medscape Medical News, WebMD. Retrieved 5 January 2016.
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- ^ a b "R.E.D. Facts for Capsaicin" (PDF). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Archived from the original (PDF) on 24 October 2012. Retrieved 13 November 2012.
- PMID 12974352.
- ^ "Human Elephant Conflict and Chilli Pepper". Elephant Pepper. Retrieved 31 May 2019.
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- ^ a b "Olympic horses fail drugs tests". BBC News Online. 21 August 2008. Retrieved 1 April 2010.
- ^ a b c "Capsaicin Material Safety Data Sheet". sciencelab.com. 2007. Archived from the original (PDF) on 29 September 2007. Retrieved 13 July 2007.
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- ^ Senese F (23 February 2018). "Fire and Spice". General Chemistry Online. Department of Chemistry, Frostburg State University.
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- ^ a b c d e "Capsaicin". DrugBank. 4 January 2023. Retrieved 1 June 2023.
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- ^ "The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 2021". Nobel Prize Outreach. Retrieved 1 June 2023.
- ^ Santora M, Engelbrecht C (4 October 2021). "Nobel Prize Awarded to Scientists for Research About Temperature and Touch". The New York Times.
- ^ Bucholz CF (1816). "Chemische Untersuchung der trockenen reifen spanischen Pfeffers" [Chemical investigation of dry, ripe Spanish peppers]. Almanach oder Taschenbuch für Scheidekünstler und Apotheker [Almanac or Pocketbook for Analysts and Apothecaries]. Vol. 37. Weimar. pp. 1–30. [Note: Christian Friedrich Bucholz's surname has been variously spelled as "Bucholz", "Bucholtz", or "Buchholz".]
- ^ In a series of articles, J. C. Thresh obtained capsaicin in almost pure form:
- Thresh JC (1876). "Isolation of capsaicin". The Pharmaceutical Journal and Transactions. 3rd Series. 6: 941–947.
- Thresh JC (8 July 1876). "Capsaicin, the active principle in Capsicum fruits". The Pharmaceutical Journal and Transactions. 3rd Series. 7 (315): 21. [Note: This article is summarized in: "Capsaicin, the active principle in Capsicum fruits". The Analyst. 1 (8): 148–149. 1876. .
- Year Book of Pharmacy… (1876), pages 250 and 543;
- Thresh JC (1877). "Note on Capsaicin". Year Book of Pharmacy: 24–25.
- Thresh JC (1877). "Report on the active principle of Cayenne pepper". Year Book of Pharmacy: 485–488.
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- ^ Buchheim R (1872). "Fructus Capsici". Vierteljahresschrift für praktische Pharmazie [Quarterly Journal for Practical Pharmacy] (in German). 4: 507ff.
- ^ Buchheim R (1873). "Fructus Capsici". Proceedings of the American Pharmaceutical Association. 22: 106.
- ^ Hőgyes E (1877). "Adatok a Capsicum annuum (paprika) alkatrészeinek élettani hatásához" [Data on the physiological effects of the pepper (Capsicum annuum)]. Orvos-természettudumányi társulatot Értesítője [ulletin of the Medical Science Association] (in Hungarian).
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- ^ Flückiger FA (1891). Pharmakognosie des Pflanzenreiches. Berlin, Germany: Gaertner's Verlagsbuchhandlung.
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Notes
- ^ History of early research on capsaicin:
- Felter HW, Lloyd JU (1898). King's American Dispensatory. Vol. 1. Cincinnati, Ohio: Ohio Valley Co. p. 435.
- Du Mez AG (1917). A century of the United States pharmocopoeia 1820–1920. I. The galenical oleoresins (PhD). University of Wisconsin. pp. 111–132.
- The results of Bucholz's and Braconnot's analyses of Capsicum annuum appear in: Pereira J (1854). The Elements of Materia Medica and Therapeutics. Vol. 2 (3rd US ed.). Philadelphia, Pennsylvania: Blanchard and Lea. p. 506.
- Biographical information about Christian Friedrich Bucholz is available in: Rose HJ (1857). Rose HJ, Wright T (eds.). A New General Biographical Dictionary. Vol. 5. London, England. p. 186.
{{cite book}}
: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link) - Biographical information about C. F. Bucholz is also available (in German) online at: Allgemeine Deutsche Biographie.
- Some other early investigators who also extracted the active component of peppers:
- Maurach B (1816). "Pharmaceutisch-chemische Untersuchung des spanischen Pfeffers" [Pharmaceutical-chemical investigation of Spanish peppers]. Berlinisches Jahrbuch für die Pharmacie (in German). 17: 63–73. Abstracts of Maurach's paper appear in: (i) Repertorium für die Pharmacie, vol. 6, page 117-119 (1819); (ii) Allgemeine Literatur-Zeitung, vol. 4, no. 18, page 146 (February 1821); (iii) "Spanischer oder indischer Pfeffer", System der Materia medica ..., vol. 6, pages 381–386 (1821) (this reference also contains an abstract of Bucholz's analysis of peppers).
- Henri Braconnot, French chemist Braconnot H (1817). "Examen chemique du Piment, de son principe âcre, et de celui des plantes de la famille des renonculacées" [Chemical investigation of the chili pepper, of its pungent principle [constituent, component], and of that of plants of the family Ranunculus]. Annales de Chimie et de Physique (in French). 6: 122- 131.
- Johann Georg Forchhammer, Danish geologist Oersted HC (1820). "Sur la découverte de deux nouveaux alcalis végétaux" [On the discovery of two new plant alkalis]. Journal de physique, de chemie, d'histoire naturelle et des arts [Journal of Physics, Chemistry, Natural History and the Arts] (in French). 90: 173–174.
- Ernst Witting, German apothecary Witting E (1822). "Considerations sur les bases vegetales en general, sous le point de vue pharmaceutique et descriptif de deux substances, la capsicine et la nicotianine" [Thoughts on the plant bases in general from a pharmaceutical viewpoint, and description of two substances, capsicin and nicotine]. Beiträge für die Pharmaceutische und Analytische Chemie [Contributions to Pharmaceutical and Analytical Chemistry] (in French). 3: 43. He called it "capsicin", after the genus Capsicum from which it was extracted. John Clough Thresh (1850–1932), who had isolated capsaicin in almost pure form,[43][44] gave it the name "capsaicin" in 1876.[45] Karl Micko isolated capsaicin in its pure form in 1898.[46][47] Capsaicin's chemical composition was first determined in 1919 by E. K. Nelson, who also partially elucidated capsaicin's chemical structure.[48] Capsaicin was first synthesized in 1930 by Ernst Spath and Stephen F. Darling.[49] In 1961, similar substances were isolated from chili peppers by the Japanese chemists S. Kosuge and Y. Inagaki, who named them capsaicinoids.[50][51]
Further reading
- Abdel-Salam OM (2014). Capsaicin as a Therapeutic Molecule. Springer. ISBN 978-3-0348-0827-9.