Captain America
Steve Rogers Captain America | |
---|---|
Publication information | |
Publisher | Marvel Comics[a] |
First appearance | Captain America Comics #1 (December 20, 1940)[b] |
Created by | Joe Simon Jack Kirby |
In-story information | |
Full name | Steven Rogers |
Place of origin | New York City |
Team affiliations | |
Partnerships | |
Notable aliases | Nomad , The Captain |
Abilities |
|
Captain America is a
The character quickly emerged as Timely's most popular and commercially successful wartime creation upon his original publication, though the popularity of superheroes declined in the post-war period and Captain America Comics was discontinued in 1950. The character saw a short-lived revival in 1953 before returning to comics in 1964, and has since remained in continuous publication. Captain America's creation as an explicitly anti-Nazi figure was a deliberately political undertaking: Simon and Kirby were stridently opposed to the actions of Nazi Germany and supporters of U.S. intervention in World War II, with Simon conceiving of the character specifically in response to the American non-interventionism movement. Political messages have subsequently remained a defining feature of Captain America stories, with writers regularly using the character to comment on the state of American society and government.
Having appeared in more than ten thousand stories in more than five thousand media formats, Captain America is one of the most popular and recognized
Publication history
Creation and development
"It was a time of deep passion. Hitler was grabbing all of Europe, we had Nazis in America, Nazis holding mass meetings in Madison Square Garden. [...] Captain America was created in that atmosphere, he was a natural outgrowth of the passionate mood of the country."
In 1940, Timely Comics publisher Martin Goodman responded to the growing popularity of superhero comics – particularly Superman at rival publisher National Comics Publications, the corporate predecessor to DC Comics – by hiring freelancer Joe Simon to create a new superhero for the company.[2] Simon began to develop the character by determining who their nemesis could be, noting that the most successful superheroes were defined by their relationship with a compelling villain, and eventually settled on Adolf Hitler.[3][4] He rationalized that Hitler was the "best villain of them all" as he was "hated by everyone in the free world",[4] and that it would be a unique approach for a superhero to face a real-life adversary rather than a fictional one.[3][c]
This approach was also intentionally political. Simon was stridently opposed to the actions of
Goodman elected to launch Captain America with his own self-titled comic book, making him the first Timely character to debut with his own ongoing series without having first appeared in an anthology.[4] Simon sought to have Jack Kirby be the primary artist on the series: the two developed a working relationship and friendship in the late 1930s after working together at Fox Feature Syndicate, and had previously developed characters for Timely together.[7][8] Kirby also shared Simon's pro-intervention views, and was particularly drawn to the character in this regard.[4] Goodman, conversely, wanted a team of artists on the series. It was ultimately determined that Kirby would serve as penciller, with Al Avison and Al Gabriele assisting as inkers;[4] Simon additionally negotiated for himself and Kirby to receive 25 percent of the profits from the comic.[9] Simon regards Kirby as a co-creator of Captain America, stating that "if Kirby hadn't drawn it, it might not have been much of anything."[4]
Debut and early success (early 1940s)
The first issue of Captain America Comics sold out in a matter of days, and the second issue's print run was set at over one million copies.
Though Captain America was not the first
Simon wrote the first two issues of Captain America Comics before becoming the editor for the series; they were the only Captain America stories he would ever directly write.[25] While Captain America generated acclaim and industry fame for Simon and Kirby, the pair believed that Goodman was withholding the promised percentage of profits for the series, prompting Simon to seek employment for himself and Kirby at National Comics Publications.[9] When Goodman learned of Simon and Kirby's intentions, he effectively fired them from Timely Comics, telling them they were to leave the company after they completed work on Captain America Comics #10.[26] The authorship of Captain America Comics was subsequently assumed by a variety of individuals, including Otto Binder, Bill Finger, and Manly Wade Wellman as writers, and Al Avison, Vince Alascia, and Syd Shores as pencilers.[16]
Decline in popularity (mid-1940s and 1950s)
Superhero comics began to decline in popularity in the post-war period.[27] This prompted a variety of attempts to reposition Captain America, including having the character fight gangsters rather than wartime enemies in Captain America Comics #42 (October 1944), appearing as a high school teacher in Captain America Comics #59 (August 1946), and joining Timely's first superhero team, the All-Winners Squad, in All Winners Comics #19 (Fall 1946).[16] The series nevertheless continued to face dwindling sales, and Captain America Comics ended with its 75th issue in February 1950.[16] Horror comics were ascendant as a popular comic genre during this period; in keeping with the trend, the final two issues of Captain America Comics were published under the title Captain America's Weird Tales.[16]
Timely's corporate successor Atlas Comics relaunched the character in 1953 in Young Men #24, where Captain America appears alongside the wartime heroes Human Torch and Toro, which was followed by a revival of Captain America Comics in 1954 written by Stan Lee and drawn by John Romita.[28] In the spirit of the Cold War and McCarthyism, the character was billed as "Captain America, Commie Smasher" and faced enemies associated with the Soviet Union.[29] The series was a commercial failure, and was cancelled after just three issues.[29] Romita attributed the series' failure to the changing political climate, particularly the public opposition to the Korean War; the character subsequently fell out of active publication for nearly a decade, with Romita noting that "for a while, 'Captain America' was a dirty word".[30]
Return to comics (1960s)
Captain America made his ostensible return in the anthology
The Avengers #4 retroactively established that Captain America had fallen into the Atlantic Ocean in the final days of World War II, where he spent decades frozen in ice in a state of suspended animation before being found and recovered.[34][f] Captain America solo stories written by Lee with Kirby as the primary penciller were published in the anthology Tales of Suspense alongside solo stories focused on fellow Avengers member Iron Man beginning in November 1964; the character also appeared in Lee and Kirby's World War II-set Sgt. Fury and his Howling Commandos beginning in December same year. These runs introduced and retroactively established several new companions of Captain America, including Nick Fury, Peggy Carter, and Sharon Carter.[36]
In 1966, Joe Simon sued Marvel Comics, asserting that he was legally entitled to renew the copyright on the character upon the expiration of the original 28-year term. The two parties settled out of court, with Simon agreeing to a statement that the character had been created under terms of employment by the publisher, and was therefore work for hire owned by the company.[37] Captain America's self-titled ongoing series was relaunched in April 1968, with Lee as writer and Kirby as penciller; Kirby later departed the series, and was replaced by Gene Colan.[38] In 1969, writer and artist Jim Steranko authored a three-issue run of Captain America. Despite the brevity of Steranko's time on the series, his contributions significantly influenced how Captain America was represented in post-war comics, reestablishing the character's secret identity and introducing a more experimental art style to the series.[39][40]
Political shifts (1970s)
"This was the '70s – prime anti-war years – and here was a guy with a flag on his chest who was supposed to represent what most people distrusted. No one knew what to do with him."
In contrast to the character's enthusiastic participation in World War II, comics featuring Captain America rarely broached the topic of the Vietnam War,[42] though the subject of Captain America's potential participation was frequently debated by readers in the letters to the editor section in Captain America.[43] Marvel maintained a position of neutrality on Vietnam; in 1971, Stan Lee wrote in an editorial that a poll indicated that a majority of readers did not want Captain America to be involved in Vietnam, adding that he believed the character "simply doesn't lend himself to the John Wayne-type character he once was" and that he could not "see any of our characters taking on a role of super-patriotism in the world as it is today".[43]
Captain America stories in the 1970s began to increasingly focus on domestic American political issues, such as poverty, racism, pollution, and political corruption.
In 1975, Roy Thomas created the comic book series The Invaders. Set during World War II, the comic focuses on a superhero team composed of Timely's wartime-era superheroes, with Captain America as its leader; Thomas, a fan of stories from the Golden Age of Comic Books, drew inspiration for the series from Timely's All-Winners Squad.[51] Jack Kirby wrote and illustrated run on Captain America and the Falcon from 1975 to 1977.[52] This was followed by issues authored by a number of writers and artists, including Roy Thomas, Donald F. Glut, Roger McKenzie, and Sal Buscema; the series was also re-titled Captain America beginning with issue 223 in 1978.[53]
Post-Vietnam and "Heroes Reborn" (1980s and 1990s)
Owing to the series' lack of a regular writer, Captain America editor
Writer Mark Gruenwald, editor of Captain America from 1982 to 1985, served as writer on the series from 1985 to 1995. Various artists illustrated the series over the course of Gruenwald's decade-long run, including Paul Neary from 1985 to 1987, and Kieron Dwyer from 1988 to 1990.[56] In contrast to DeMatteis, Gruenwald placed less emphasis on Steve Rogers' life as a civilian, wishing to show "that Steve Rogers is Captain America first [...] he has no greater needs than being Captain America."[58] Among the most significant storylines appearing in Gruenwald's run was "The Choice" in 1987, in which Steve Rogers renounces the identity of Captain America to briefly become simply "The Captain" after the United States government orders him to continue his superheroic activities directly under their control.[59]
After Gruenwald departed the series, writer Mark Waid and artist Ron Garney began to author Captain America in 1995. Despite early acclaim, including the reintroduction of Captain America's love interest Sharon Carter, their run was terminated after ten issues as a result of Marvel's "Heroes Reborn" rebranding in 1996.[60] The rebrand saw artists Jim Lee and Rob Liefeld, who had left the company in the early 1990s to establish Image Comics, return to Marvel to re-imagine several of the company's characters.[61] Marvel faced various financial difficulties in the 1990s, culminating in the company filing for Chapter 11 bankruptcy protection in 1996,[62] and "Heroes Reborn" was introduced as part of an effort to increase sales.[63] As part of the rebrand, Liefeld illustrated and co-wrote with Jeph Loeb a run on Captain America that was ultimately cancelled after six issues.[63] Marvel stated that the series was cancelled due to low sales,[63] though Liefeld has contended that he was fired after he refused to take a lower pay rate amid Marvel's bankruptcy proceedings.[64] Waid would return to Captain America in 1998, initially with Garney as arist and later with Andy Kubert.[60]
In 1999, Joe Simon filed to claim the copyright to Captain America under a provision of the Copyright Act of 1976 that allows the original creators of works that have been sold to corporations to reclaim them after the original 56-year copyright term has expired. Marvel challenged the claim, arguing that Simon's 1966 settlement made the character ineligible for copyright transfer. Simon and Marvel settled out of court in 2003, in a deal that paid Simon royalties for merchandising and licensing of the character.[37][65]
Modern era (2000s to present)
Writer and artist
In 2005, Marvel relaunched Captain America in
After Brubaker's run on Captain America ended in 2012, a new volume of the series written by
Characterization
Fictional character biography
As of 2015[update], Captain America has appeared in more than ten thousand stories in more than five thousand media formats, including comic books, books, and trade publications.
Rogers is found decades later by the superhero team the
In the aftermath of the
Personality and motivations
"Rogers' transformation into Captain America is underwritten by the military. But, perhaps haunted by his own roots in powerlessness, he is a dissident just as likely to be feuding with his superiors in civilian and military governance as he is to be fighting with the supervillain Red Skull. [...] He is 'a man out of time,' a walking emblem of greatest-generation propaganda brought to life in this splintered postmodern time."
Steve Rogers' personality has shifted across his editorial history, a fact that media scholar J. Richard Stevens sees as a natural consequence of the character being written and re-interpreted by many writers over the span of multiple decades. However, Stevens identifies two aspects of the character's personality that have remained consistent across expressions: his "uncompromising purity" and "his ability to judge the character in others".[93] Early Captain America stories typically paid little attention to Rogers' civilian identity; in his 1970 book The Steranko History of Comics, Jim Steranko notes that the character was often criticized for being two-dimensional as a result. He argues that this was an intentional device, writing that these critics "failed to grasp the true implication of his being. Steve Rogers never existed, except perhaps as an abstract device for the convenience of storytelling. Captain America was not an embodiment of human characteristics but a pure idea."[94]
Following the character's return to comics in the 1960s, many stories gave increased focus to Rogers' civilian identity, particularly his struggles as a "man out of time" attempting to adjust to the modern era.[95] Often, stories depict a brooding or melancholic Rogers as he faces both a physical struggle as Captain America, and an ideological struggle as Steve Rogers to reconcile his social values with modern times.[96] The character is frequently conflicted by his World War II-era "good war" morality being challenged and made anachronistic by the compromising demands of the post-war era.[96][97]
Prior to Bucky Barnes' return to comics in the 2000s, many Captain America stories centered on Rogers' sense of guilt over Barnes' death. Culture scholar Robert G. Weiner argues that these stories mirror the post-traumatic stress disorder and survivor guilt held by many war veterans, and that this trauma distinguishes the character from other well-known superheroes such as Batman and Spider-Man: while those characters became heroes because of a traumatic incident, Rogers carries on as a hero in spite of a traumatic incident, with Weiner asserting that this reinforces the nobility of the character.[98]
Political themes
Though Marvel has historically trended away from making overt partisan statements in the post-war period, writers have nevertheless used Captain America to comment on the state of American society and government at particular moments in history.[84] For example, the conspiracy storyline of "Secret Empire" reflected what writer Steve Englehart saw as broad disillusionment with American institutions in the wake of the Vietnam War and the Watergate scandal,[85] the "Streets of Poison" storyline by Mark Gruenwald in the 1990s was intended to address anxieties around the drug trade and debates on the war on drugs,[85] and "Civil War" by Mark Millar was widely interpreted as an allegory for the Patriot Act and post-9/11 debates on the balance between national security and civil liberties.[99] While the ideological orientation of Captain America stories has shifted in response to changing social and political attitudes, Stevens notes how a central component of Captain America's mythology is that the character himself does not change: when the character's attitudes have shifted, it is consistently framed as an evolution or a new understanding of his previously held ideals. Stevens argues that the character's seeming paradoxical steadfastness is reflective of "the language of comics, where continuity is continually updated to fit the needs of the serialized present."[100]
Despite his status as patriotic superhero, Captain America is rarely depicted as an overtly
Powers, abilities, and equipment
"Cap is one of the hardest hero characters to write, because the writer cannot use some exotic super-power to make his episodes seem colorful. [...] All he has to serve him are his extraordinary combat skills, his shield, and his unquenchable love for freedom and justice."
Captain America possesses no superpowers, though the Super-Soldier Serum has enhanced his body's strength, speed, agility, endurance, reflexes, reaction time, and natural self-healing ability to the peak of human physical perfection. He is additionally an expert tactician and field commander, and has achieved mastery in a variety of hand-to-hand combat styles, including boxing and judo.[108] The precise parameters of Captain America's physical prowess vary across stories due to editorial dictates and artistic license taken by authors; Steve Englehart was given an editorial order to give the character superhuman strength in the 1970s, but the change did not remain permanent and was soon forgotten.[41] Steve Rogers is also a skilled visual artist, having worked as a commercial illustrator prior to joining the military, and several storylines have depicted the character working as a freelance artist.[109]
The basic design of Captain America's costume has remained largely consistent from its original incarnation in the 1940s. Designed by Joe Simon, the costume is based on the
Supporting cast
Sidekicks and partners
Captain America's first
In 1969,
Enemies
Over the course of several decades, writers and artists have established a
Romantic interests
Steve Rogers' first love interest was Betsy Ross, introduced in his World War II-era comics as a member of the
Alternate versions of Captain America
The title of "Captain America" has been used by other characters in the
Cultural impact and legacy
"Over the years, Captain America's story has accurately reflected U.S. attitudes, as our country moved from the self-confidence of the early Cold War to the guilt-ridden angst of the 1970s to the revival of national pride that characterized the Reagan 1980s."
– Jacob Heilbrun,
Captain America is one of the most popular and widely recognized Marvel Comics characters, and has been described as an icon of
When the character was killed in 2007, he was eulogized in numerous mainstream media outlets, including
In other media
Captain America has appeared in a variety of adapted, spin-off, and licensed media, including films, cartoons, video games, toys, clothing, and books.[135] The first appearance of Captain America in a medium outside of comic books was in the 1944 serial film Captain America, which was also the first piece of non-comics media to feature a Marvel Comics character.[144] The character later appeared in two made-for-TV films in 1979, Captain America and Captain America II: Death Too Soon,[145] and a self-titled feature-length film in 1990.[146] A trilogy of Captain America films starring Chris Evans as the title character were produced as part of the Marvel Cinematic Universe (MCU) in the 2010s: Captain America: The First Avenger (2011), Captain America: The Winter Soldier (2014), and Captain America: Civil War (2016).[147] The character also appeared in the ensemble films The Avengers (2012),[148] Avengers: Age of Ultron (2015),[149] Avengers: Infinity War (2018),[150] and Avengers: Endgame (2019).[150]
The first appearance of Captain America on television was in the 1966 Grantray-Lawrence Animation series The Marvel Super Heroes. The character would make minor appearances in several Marvel animated series in the subsequent decades, including Spider-Man and His Amazing Friends (1981–1983), X-Men: The Animated Series (1992–1997), and The Avengers: United They Stand (1999–2000). Buoyed by increased popularity from the character's appearances in the MCU, Captain America began appearing in television series in more prominent roles beginning in the 2010s, such as The Avengers: Earth's Mightiest Heroes (2010–2012).[151] Captain America was the first Marvel character to be adapted into a novel with Captain America: The Great Gold Steal by Ted White, published in 1968.[130]
Notes
- ^ Formerly Timely Comics and Atlas Comics
- ^ Cover dated as March 1941
- ^ According to Simon, Goodman initially opposed using Hitler as a villain owing to the possibility of Hitler being killed prior to the release of the first issue.[4]
- US Department of War.[16]
- ^ Kirby returned to the company as a freelancer in 1956.[31]
- ^ This revised backstory did not acknowledge stories set in the post-war period that had featured the character. These depictions would later be retconned as individuals who were not Steve Rogers assuming the role of Captain America; the 1950s "Commie Smasher" incarnation of the character, for example, was retconned as the villainous William Burnside in the 1970s.[35]
- ^ This shift was enabled by a change to the Comics Code Authority in 1971; the code had previously prohibited "respected institutions" from being "presented in such a way as to create disrespect for established authority", but was revised to permit depictions of illegal acts by these institutions so long as the individual responsible was made to "pay the legal price" and the act itself was "declared as an exceptional case".[45]
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- Dittmer, Jason (2012). Captain America and the Nationalist Superhero: Metaphors, Narratives, and Geopolitics. ISBN 978-1439909775.
- Dowsett, Elizabeth, ed. (2008). Marvel Chronicle: A Year by Year History. ISBN 978-0756641238.
- Dutter, Barry (December 1990). "Simon Says...". ISSN 8750-4367.
- Fromm, Keif (June 2005). "The Privacy Act Of Carl Burgos". Alter Ego. 3 (49). TwoMorrows Publishing.
- ISBN 0-8780-5758-7.
- Johnson, Mackenna (2018). ""Captain America Must Die": How a Super Soldier became a Patriot". The Forum: Journal of History. 10 (1): 81–97.
- ISBN 978-0-465-03657-8.
- ISBN 9781556526336.
- Morse, Ben (May 2007). "The Wizard Retrospective: Captain America". Wizard (187): 30–48.
- ISBN 978-1433101076.
- Rizzo, Marco; Licari, Fabio (2021). Marvel's Captain America: The First 80 Years. ISBN 978-1787737174.
- Ro, Ronin (2004). Tales to Astonish: Jack Kirby, Stan Lee and the American Comic Book Revolution. ISBN 978-1-58234-345-7.
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- Senreich, Matthew (August 1997). "The Wizard Q&A: Mark Waid & Ron Garney". Wizard (72): 68–72.
- ISBN 978-1887591355.
- Steranko, Jim (1970). The Steranko History of Comics, Vol 1. Supergraphics.
- Weiner, Robert, ed. (2009). Captain America and the Struggle of the Superhero: Critical Essays. ISBN 978-0786437030.
- Lawrence, John Shelton (2009). "Foreword by John Shelton Lawrence". In Weiner, Robert (ed.). Captain America and the Struggle of the Superhero: Critical Essays. pp. 1–7.
- Hayton, Christopher J.; Albright, David L. (2009). "O Captain! My Captain!". In Weiner, Robert (ed.). Captain America and the Struggle of the Superhero: Critical Essays. pp. 15–23.
- Moser, John E. (2009). "Madmen, Morons, and Monocles: The Portrayal of the Nazis in Captain America". In Weiner, Robert (ed.). Captain America and the Struggle of the Superhero: Critical Essays. pp. 24–35.
- Hack, Brian E. (2009). "Weakness Is a Crime: Captain America and the Eugenic Ideal in Early Twentieth-Century America". In Weiner, Robert (ed.). Captain America and the Struggle of the Superhero: Critical Essays. pp. 79–89.
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- Walton, David (2009). "'Captain America Must Die': The Many Afterlives of Steve Rogers". In Weiner, Robert (ed.). Captain America and the Struggle of the Superhero: Critical Essays. pp. 160–175.
- Cunningham, Phillip L. (2009). "Stevie's Got a Gun: Captain America and His Problematic Use of Lethal Force". In Weiner, Robert (ed.). Captain America and the Struggle of the Superhero: Critical Essays. pp. 176–189.
- Steinmetz, Christian (2009). "A Genealogy of Evil: Captain America vs. the Shadows of the National Imagined Community". In Weiner, Robert (ed.). Captain America and the Struggle of the Superhero: Critical Essays. pp. 190–203.
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- Weiner, Robert G. (2013). "Captain America". In Duncan, Randy; Smith, Matthew J. (eds.). Icons of the American Comic Book: From Captain America to Wonder Woman. ISBN 9780313399244.
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External links
- Official website
- Captain America at the Marvel Database, a Marvel Comics wiki
- Captain America (Steve Rogers) at the Comic Book DB (archived from the original)
- Captain America Library, comprehensive fan website (defunct; link via Wayback Machine)