Captive orcas
Dozens of
The practice of keeping orcas in captivity is controversial, due to the separation from their familial pod during capture, and their living conditions and health in captivity.
Orcas
Although the orca is not an
Capture and breeding
It is extremely difficult to capture orcas and to provide a healthy environment for the captives. Early attempts in the 1960s caused many injuries and deaths. However, with experience, the teams who specialized in the business became more adept and post-capture survival rates improved. Live captures peaked in the early 1970s, but have become increasingly rare as the marine parks have learned how to maintain theme park populations through captive breeding and artificial insemination.
North Eastern Pacific captures
The first capture in the North Eastern Pacific occurred in November 1961. An orca of the
The third capture for display occurred in June 1965 when a fisherman found a 22-foot (6.7 m) male orca in his floating salmon net that had drifted close to shore near
A few months later, Griffin procured a companion for Namu: a very young, 14 foot (4.25 m), 2000 lb (900 kg) orca captured off
The Yukon Harbor operation was the first planned, deliberate capture of multiple orcas. After a long and dramatic 17-day operation in February and March 1967, five southern resident orcas were taken into captivity, while three others died entangled in nets.[28][29]
During the 1960s and early 1970s, nearly 50 orcas were taken from Pacific waters for exhibition. The Southern Resident community of orcas in the Northeast Pacific lost 48 of its members to captivity. By 1976, only 80 orcas were left in the community, which remains endangered. With subsequent captures, the theme parks learned more about avoiding injury during capture and subsequent care of orcas. In addition, animal trainers developed techniques to work with orcas, whose performances and tricks made them a great attraction to visitors. As commercial demand increased, growing numbers of Pacific orcas were captured, peaking in 1970.[30]
A turning point came with a mass capture of orcas from the L-25 pod on August 8, 1970 at
Lolita, originally known as Tokitae, was a survivor of the Penn Cove captures. She was about four years old at time of capture and was the second oldest captive orca at the time of her death in August 2023. Lolita is the subject of the documentary Lolita: Slave to Entertainment, released in 2008.[34] Various groups argued that Lolita should be released into the wild.[35][36] Lolita's mother, L-25 (also known as Ocean Sun), is still alive at approximately 90 years old and is the oldest living southern resident orca in the wild.[37][38]
Icelandic captures
When the US Marine Mammal Protection Act of 1972 effectively stopped the capture of Pacific orcas, exhibitors found an area more tolerant of killer whale captures in Iceland.
The Icelandic captives included
North Western Pacific captures
1,477 killer whales were hunted in Japanese waters between 1948 and 1972, 545 of them around Hokkaido. Killer whale encounters in Japanese waters are now rare.[43] In 1997 a group of ten killer whales was corralled by Japanese fisherman banging on iron rods and using water bombs to disorient the animals and force them into a bay near Taiji, Wakayama, a technique known as dolphin drive hunting which these villagers have been practising for years. The orcas were held in the bay for two days before being auctioned to Japanese marine parks. Five animals were released, and the other five transported via road or sea to the aquariums. All five are now dead.[44]
The first live killer whale captured in Russia was an 18-foot (5.5 m)-long female estimated to be about six years old, captured off the Pacific coast of the
Killer whales born in captivity
The majority of today's theme-park orcas were
The first orca conceived through
The practice of exhibiting orcas born in captivity is less controversial than of retaining free-born orcas, since the captive-born orcas have known no other world and may not be able to adapt to life in the wild. Captive breeding also promises to reduce incentives to capture wild orcas.[50] However, in January 2002 the Miami Seaquarium stated that captive orcas are dying faster than they are being born, and as it is virtually impossible to obtain orcas captured from the wild, the business of exhibiting captive orcas may eventually disappear.[51]
Captivity locations
As of September 29, 2016, orcas in 13 facilities in North and South America, Europe and Asia provide entertainment for theme park visitors.[52] Building the physical infrastructure of the parks requires major capital expenditure, but as the star attractions the orcas are arguably the most valuable and irreplaceable assets.
SeaWorld
SeaWorld is a chain of marine mammal parks in the United States and is the largest owner of captive killer whales in the world. The parks feature killer whale, sea lion, and dolphin shows and zoological displays featuring various other marine animals. The parks' icon is Shamu, the orca.[53] Parks include:
- San Diego, California; home of Corky II, Orkid, Ulises, Kalia, Ikaika, Keet, Shouka and Makani. Corky II is the oldest killer whale ever kept in human care, estimated to be 58 years old.
- SeaWorld Orlando, Orlando, Florida; home of Katina, Trua, Nalani, Malia, and Makaio
- San Antonio, Texas; home of Kyuquot, Tuar, Takara, Sakari, and Kamea
SeaWorld Ohio closed in 2001.
Miami Seaquarium
The Miami Seaquarium is an aquarium located on
Marineland Canada
Marineland was the last facility in Canada to hold a captive orca. It is a privately held themed amusement and animal exhibition park in the city of
A law banning breeding or keeping cetaceans in captivity (except for rehabilitation or research, and those already held) was passed by the Parliament of Canada in June 2019. During the debate, the Vancouver Aquarium, the only other Canadian facility still holding cetaceans, announced it would no longer keep dolphins or whales.[61][62]
Marineland (Antibes)
Marineland is an animal exhibition park in Antibes, France, founded in 1970. It receives more than 750,000 visitors per year, and is the only French facility to house orcas.[63] The park is a subsidiary of Parques Reunidos, a Spanish group with properties in Europe, Argentina and the United States. It currently holds Wikie, born at the park in 2001, and her son Keijo, born in 2013. Moana, who was born at the park in 2011, died in October of 2023. In March 2024, Inouk, a 25-year old male and Wikie's brother, died.[64] With only two orcas remaining at the park and the French government having enacted a law banning the public display of cetaceans starting in 2026, the future of Marineland's orca exhibit is in doubt. Marineland has reportedly been considering transferring its remaining orcas to Japan, although French authorities have stated that no export permit applications had yet been submitted by the park.[65]
Loro Parque
Loro Parque (
In February 2006, Loro Parque received four young killer whales; two males, Keto (born in 1995) and Tekoa (born in 2000), and two females, Kohana (2002-2022) and Skyla (2004-2021) on loan from SeaWorld. Sea World sent its own professionals, including trainers, curators & veterinarians, to supplement the staff at Loro Parque. In 2004 and 2005, before the killer whales were brought to Loro Parque, eight animal trainers from the park were sent to Sea World parks in Texas and Florida for training. However, only half of these trainers are currently employed in Orca Ocean, Loro Parque's facility for the killer whales. None of the subsequent employees hired have been sent to Sea World parks for training.[67] On December 24, 2009, orca trainer Alexis Martinez, age 29, was killed during a Christmas show rehearsal when he was attacked by Keto, which resulted in his drowning. He had worked at Loro Parque since 2004. From this date the trainers no longer enter the water with the orcas during live shows. In December 2017, SeaWorld announced that the orcas they had loaned to Loro Parque now belonged to the Spanish amusement park.
Male orca Adán, the inbred son of Kohana and Keto, and female orca Morgan also live at Loro Parque. Morgan was rescued in 2010 and arrived at the facility in 2011, while Adán was born there in 2010. Adán's sister, Victoria(Vicky), was born in 2012, but died in 2013.[68] In 2018, Morgan gave birth to her first calf, female orca Ula. Skyla died on March 11, 2021, Ula died on August 10, 2021, and Kohana died on September 14, 2022.[citation needed]
Mundo Marino
Mundo Marino, located south of Buenos Aires in the coastal town of San Clemente del Tuyú, Argentina, is the largest aquarium in South America. Mundo Marino is home to one male killer whale, Kshamenk, who stranded or was force-stranded in 1992.[69] Kshamenk is estimated to have been around 4+1⁄2 years old when he arrived.
Port of Nagoya Public Aquarium
Port of Nagoya Public Aquarium is a public aquarium in Minato-ku, Nagoya, Aichi Prefecture, Japan. The Port of Nagoya Public Aquarium is the largest existing public aquarium in Japan. Orcas have been housed in Japan's largest main show tank of 13,500,000 litres (3,566,000 US gal) since 2003. Captivity began with Kū/Ku,[70] followed by Nami,[71] Stella, Bingo, and Ran II, and on November 13, 2012, Bingo and Stella's female calf, Lynn, was born. Port of Nagoya Public Aquarium is currently home to Stella, her daughter Lynn, and grandson Earth.[72]
Kamogawa Sea World
Kamogawa Sea World is an aquarium located in
Chimelong Spaceship
Chimelong Spaceship is a marine park located in Hengqin, Zhuhai, China. In 2017, the facility opened an orca breeding facility, initially containing five males and four females sourced from Russia.[75] They currently house 14 orcas: five females (Sonya, Nukka / Grace, Jade, Katenka and Katniss), and eight males (Tyson, Nakhod, Bandhu, Kaixin, Chad, Yīlóng, Loki and Wulong) and one unknown gender calf at Chimelong Holding Facility who was expected to be born between September to December 2023.
Other marine exhibitions
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- Moskvarium, Moscow, Russia; home of Naja/Naya
- Shanghai Haichang Ocean Park, Shanghai, China;[76] home of Pànghǔ, Shawn II/Sean, Dora, Cookie, Cody/Fat Beans and Dora's calf who was born in December 2023.
- SunAsia Beluga Whale World, China; home of females "Samara" and "Kyra" (real names unknown)
- Wuxi Changqiao Killer Whale Ocean World Resort, Jiangsu, China; home of two unnamed males
- It is unknown where TIN-OO-C1306 and Malvina currently reside, they may be with at a park previously listed.
Captivity conditions
Tank size and water conditions
Legal requirements for tank size vary greatly from country to country. In the US, the minimum enclosure size is set by the Code of Federal Regulations, 9 CFR 3.104, under the Specifications for the Humane Handling, Care, Treatment, and Transportation of Marine Mammals.[77] In 9 CFR 3.104, Table III classifies killer whales as Group I cetaceans with an average length of 24 feet (7.3 m). Based on length, Table I states up to two killer whales may be held in a pool with a minimum horizontal dimension (the diameter of a circular pool of water) of twice that length or 48 feet (15 m) and a minimum depth of 12 feet (3.7 m), giving a minimum volume of 21,700 cubic feet (615 m3) for two killer whales. Each additional killer whale requires a pool with an additional 10,900 cubic feet (308 m3) of volume. 9 CFR 3.104 also requires a minimum of 680 square feet (63 m2) surface area per killer whale in Table IV (the example with a cylindrical tank 48 feet (15 m) in diameter for two whales provides 905 square feet (84.1 m2) of surface area per killer whale). Swiss regulations require a larger minimum volume: 400 square metres (4,300 sq ft) × 4 metres (13 ft) deep for two killer whales, or 1,600 cubic metres (57,000 cu ft). The Alliance of Marine Mammal Parks and Aquariums (AMMPA) goes further, and recommends 1,918 cubic metres (67,700 cu ft) for two killer whales.[78] The US exhibitors of captive killer whales belong to the AMMPA, but exhibitors in other countries do not.[79]
The
Nutrition and medical care
On average, an adult killer whale in the wild may eat about three to four percent of their body weight daily,[82] or as much as 227 kg (500 lb) of food for a six-ton male. Their diet in the wild depends on what is available, and may include fish, walruses, seals, sea lions, penguins, squid, sea turtles, sharks and whales.[83] According to SeaWorld, each of their adult orcas receives 140 to 240 pounds of food per day, primarily herring, capelin, salmon and mackerel. To maintain their alertness, the killer whales are fed at sporadic intervals throughout the day (as would happen in the wild) and feeding is often combined with training and shows. Each batch of fish is carefully tested to determine its nutritive composition, and each killer whale's weight, activity and health is carefully monitored to determine any special dietary requirements.[84]
Killer whales have been the subject of extensive medical research since their first capture, and much is known about prevention and treatment of the common
Training
Whales are trained using
Issues with captivity
The practice of keeping killer whales in captivity is controversial, and organizations such as
The captive environment bears little resemblance to their wild habitat, and the social groups that the killer whales are put into are foreign to those found in the wild.
Disease and lifespan
The lifespan of killer whales in captivity versus wild killer whales is disputed. Several studies published in scientific journals show that the average mortality rate for captive killer whales is approximately three times higher than in the wild.[90] A 2015 study in the Journal of Mammalogy, authored by SeaWorld's vice-president of theriogenology, Todd Robeck,[91][92] concluded that the life expectancy for killer whales born at SeaWorld is the same as those in the wild.[93] In the wild, female killer whales have a typical lifespan of 60–80 years, and a maximum recorded lifespan of 103 years.[94] The average lifespan for males in the wild is 30 years, but some live up to 50–60 years.[95] The 2015 study has been criticised by Trevor Willis, senior lecturer in marine biology at the University of Portsmouth, who stated that the study is misleading, "clearly wrong" and indicative of "poor practice". He stated that it is misleading in two ways: "First, it compares two completely different circumstances: the controlled environment of a swimming pool, with highly trained vets on hand; and the wild ocean. "There are no predators in a swimming pool. Second, and in the absence of any other information, it appears they've looked at the survival rate of calves in the first two years of life and extrapolated it out 50 years into the future." He also stated that no captive orca has lived for 55.8 years,[91] the recorded average life expectancy of adult orcas at SeaWorld.[92]
SeaWorld San Antonio's 14-year-old
The shallowness of orca tanks forces orcas to spend a lot of time at the surface, where they are exposed to ultraviolet (UV) rays. Sunburns and the development of cataracts in orcas in captivity are attributed to this exposure. Orcas in the wild live at higher latitudes, meaning less intense sun, and spend more time in deeper, darker waters.[99] While the effects of prolonged UV exposure on orcas' skin is uncertain, since captive orca necropsies are extremely secretive,[100] it is thought that prolonged exposure to UV rays on unprotected skin would have the same negative effects such as melanoma (skin cancer) on orcas as it does on humans.[citation needed]
The original Namu developed a bacterial infection which damaged his nervous system, causing him to become unresponsive to people. During his illness he charged full-speed into the wire mesh of his pen, thrashed violently for a few minutes and then died.[101]
Dorsal fin collapse
Most captive male killer whales, and some females, have a dorsal fin that is partially or completely collapsed to one side. Several hypotheses exist as to why this happens. A dorsal fin is held erect by collagen, which normally hardens in late adolescence.
Scientists from the National Marine Fisheries Service (NMFS) have reported that "the collapsed dorsal fins commonly seen in captive killer whales do not result from a pathogenic condition, but are instead thought to most likely originate from an irreversible structural change in the fin's collagen over time. Possible explanations for this include: (1) alterations in water balance caused by the stresses of captivity dietary changes, (2) lowered blood pressure due to reduced activity patterns, or (3) overheating of the collagen brought on by greater exposure of the fin to the ambient air."[102] According to SeaWorld's website, another reason for the fin to bend may be the greater amount of time that captive whales spend at the surface, where the fin is not supported by water pressure.[103] The Whale and Dolphin Conservation says that dorsal fin collapse is largely explained by captive killer whales swimming in small circles due to the inadequate space in which they have to swim.[104]
Collapsed or collapsing dorsal fins are rare in most wild populations and usually result from a serious injury to the fin, such as from being shot or colliding with a vessel.
A study in 1998 recorded that 7 out of 30 (23%) adult male killer whales off the coast of New Zealand had abnormal dorsal fins. Fins were considered abnormal if they displayed collapse, partial collapse, or bends.[105] This is a higher prevalence of these deformities than in other areas of the world, as studies have reported rates of abnormal fins in wild adult males at 4.7% in British Columbia and 0.57% in Norway.[105] Researchers in 1994 found that of the ~300 killer whales photographed off the coast of British Columbia, fewer than 1% were observed to have "droopy" dorsal fins.[106]
Attacks on humans
Captive killer whale attacks on humans fall mostly into the categories of biting during feeding, ramming in the water, and holding under water. Killer whales biting trainers during feeding or shows is generally the mildest form of attack seen, but can escalate to an animal dragging the trainer underwater and holding them there until they lose consciousness or drown. Trainers who have had killer whales ram into them in the water have suffered from injuries including internal bleeding, broken bones, ruptured organs, and heart attack.[110]
Kasatka, a female killer whale who was captured off the coast of Iceland in October 1978 at the age of one year, has shown aggression toward humans. Kasatka tried to bite a trainer during a show in 1993, and again in 1999.[118] On November 30, 2006, Kasatka grabbed a trainer and dragged him underwater during their show. The trainer suffered puncture wounds to both feet and a torn metatarsal ligament in his left foot.[119][120][121]
On Christmas Eve of 2009, 29-year-old Alexis Martínez of Loro Parque, Tenerife, Spain, was killed by a whale named Keto. After spending two and a half minutes at the bottom of the 12-meter-deep main pool, his body was retrieved but he could not be revived. The park initially characterized the death as an accident and claimed that the body showed no signs of violence, but the subsequent autopsy report stated that Martinez died due to grave injuries sustained by an orca attack, including multiple compression fractures, tears to vital organs, and the bite marks of the animal on his body.[122] During the investigation into Martinez's death, it came to light that the park had also misrepresented a 2007 incident with Tekoa, the other male, claiming that it was an accident rather than an attack.[123]
The only recorded injury of a human by an orca in the wild happened in 1972 at Point Sur, California.[124]
Aggression between captive orcas
In August 1989, the dominant female Icelandic killer whale at SeaWorld San Diego,
Early pregnancy and related issues
Captive killer whales often give birth at a much younger age than in the wild, sometimes as young as age seven. The young mothers may have difficulty raising their offspring. The calves have a relatively low survival rate, though some have lived into adulthood.
A killer whale named
On October 13, 2010, Kohana, an eight-year-old female killer whale, gave birth to a male calf at Loro Parque's "Orca Ocean" exhibit after a four-hour labor. The calf weighed about 150 kilograms (330 lb), and was two meters (6 ft 7 in) long. Kohana has yet to establish a "maternal bond" with her calf, forcing trainers to take the first steps in hand rearing him. The outcome of this pregnancy was not considered surprising, since Kohana was separated from her own mother, Takara, at three years of age, and was never able to learn about maternal care, compounded by the fact that she spent the formative years of her life surrounded by the three other juvenile killer whales at Loro Parque.
See also
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(help - ^ "Keto and Tilikum Express the Stress of Orca Captivity". 2011. Retrieved October 6, 2015.
- ^ "Killer Controversy: Why Orcas Should No Longer Be Kept in Captivity" (PDF). 2011. Retrieved October 6, 2015.
- ^ "The First Captive Killer Whales – A Changing Attitude". Rockisland.com. Archived from the original on June 7, 2017. Retrieved April 29, 2014.
- ^ a b c National Marine Fisheries Service Northwest Regional Office (August 2005). "Proposed Conservation Plan for Southern Resident Killer Whales (Orcinus orca)" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on February 21, 2007. Retrieved May 7, 2007.
- ^ "Ask Shamu: Frequently Asked Questions". SeaWorld/Busch Gardens. Archived from the original on October 3, 2013. Retrieved May 5, 2008.
- ^ Williams, Vanessa (April 30, 2001). "Captive Orcas 'Dying to Entertain You'" (PDF). Whale and Dolphin Conservation Society. Retrieved May 5, 2008.
- ^ Ingrid N. Visser. "Prolific body scars and collapsing dorsal fins on killer whales (Orcinus orca) in New Zealand waters" (PDF). Archived from the original(PDF) on February 27, 2008. Retrieved March 28, 2008.
- ^ Hoyt, Erich; Garrett, Howard E.; Rose, Naomi A. "Observations of Disparity Between Educational Material Related to Killer Whales (Orcinus orca) Disseminated by Public Display Institutions and the Scientific Literature" (PDF). Orca Network. p. 10. Archived from the original (PDF) on February 9, 2022. Retrieved April 7, 2021.
- ^ "ABC News: Killer Whale Attacks SeaWorld Trainer". ABC News.
- ^ Kluger, Jeffrey (February 26, 2010). "Killer-Whale Tragedy: What Made Tilikum Snap?". Time. Archived from the original on February 28, 2010. Retrieved March 5, 2010.
- ^ "Inside the mind of a 'killer whale'". Cosmic Log (website). MSNBC. February 25, 2010. Archived from the original on March 1, 2010. Retrieved March 9, 2010.
- ^ "Keep Whales Wild: Trainer Incidents". Retrieved November 5, 2010.
- ^ "Tilikum" Orca Spirit. Retrieved February 12, 2009.
- ^ "Park Is Sued Over Death of Man in Whale Tank". The New York Times. Associated Press. September 21, 1999. Retrieved March 7, 2009.
- ^ "Daniel Dukes Medical Examiners Report". Retrieved August 8, 2013.
Postmortem abrasions, laceration and avulsion of the scrotum with testes. Avulsion of the skin of the pubic area including the scrotal sac and testis, with the left testis separate.
- ^ "OSHA Investigates Trainer's Death, Separate Incident – Orlando News Story – WKMG Orlando". Archived from the original on October 23, 2011.
- ^ "SeaWorld trainer killed by killer whale - CNN.com". CNN. February 25, 2010. Retrieved April 28, 2010. See also: Tilikum
- ^ "What's best for "Tilikum" now, and what have we learned?". Orcanetwork.org. February 24, 2010. Archived from the original on March 4, 2016. Retrieved April 29, 2014.
- ^ "Secretary of Labor, Complainant v. SeaWorld of Florida – Decision and Order" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on June 8, 2012. Retrieved June 13, 2012.
- SignOnSanDiego.com. Archived from the originalon May 1, 2009.
- ^ "Near Death At SeaWorld: Worldwide Exclusive Video" Huffington Post July 24, 2012.
- ^ "Killer whale attacks Sea World trainer" CNN November 30, 2006.
- ^ "Kasatka" Archived May 19, 2009, at the Wayback Machine Beyond the Blue. Retrieved February 14, 2009.
- ^ M. Á. Montero / Santa Cruz De Tenerife (October 3, 2010). "La orca "Keto" sí atacó y causó la muerte de Alexis, el adiestrador del Loro Parque". ABC.es. Retrieved April 29, 2014.
- ^ Moisés Á. Montero / Puerto De La Cruz (November 2010). "Uno de los responsables de las orcas reconoce la "agresión" de "Tekoa" en 2007". ABC.es. Retrieved April 29, 2014.
- ^ "In the jaws of an orca - ORCAZINE". ORCAZINE. February 29, 2016. Retrieved November 17, 2018.
- ^ "Corky's Story" Archived September 10, 2012, at archive.today The Orca Zone. Retrieved September 3, 2014.
- ^ "Kanduke" Orca Spirit. Retrieved September 3, 2014.
- ^ "Corky's saddest day" Orca Lab. Retrieved September 3, 2014.
- ^ UK. "Behind the bars – Orca in captivity". Bornfree.org.uk. Archived from the original on August 25, 2017. Retrieved April 29, 2014.
- ^ "Captive Orcas 'Dying to Entertain You'" Whale and Dolphin Conservation Society. Retrieved February 15, 2009.
- ^ "Gudrun" GeoCities. Retrieved February 12, 2009.
- ^ Website Dolfinarium, Downloaded on November 5, 2008, from http://www.dolfinarium.nl/index.php?do=content&id=210 Archived February 19, 2009, at the Wayback Machine
- ^ SeaWorld Welcomes Newest "Pea" to Pod, press release, SeaWorld Orlando, March 12, 2007. Retrieved June 6, 2007. Archived May 17, 2008, at the Wayback Machine
- ^ "Beyond the Blue: Taima" Free Webs. Retrieved February 12, 2009. Archived March 7, 2009, at the Wayback Machine
- ^ "Sumar" Beyond the Blue. Retrieved February 12, 2009. Archived October 9, 2008, at the Wayback Machine
- Dallas Morning News. Archived from the originalon March 8, 2009. Retrieved June 15, 2008.
External links
- Further reading Selected bibliography on Orcas from NOAA.