Carbon
Carbon | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Allotropes | graphite, diamond and more (see Allotropes of carbon) | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Appearance |
| ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Standard atomic weight Ar°(C) | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Carbon in the periodic table | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Discovery | Egyptians and Sumerians[14] (3750 BCE) | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Recognized as an element by | Antoine Lavoisier[15] (1789) | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Isotopes of carbon | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Carbon (from
Carbon is the 15th most abundant element in the Earth's crust, and the fourth most abundant element in the universe by mass after hydrogen, helium, and oxygen. Carbon's abundance, its unique diversity of organic compounds, and its unusual ability to form polymers at the temperatures commonly encountered on Earth, enables this element to serve as a common element of all known life. It is the second most abundant element in the human body by mass (about 18.5%) after oxygen.[20]
The atoms of carbon can bond together in diverse ways, resulting in various
The most common oxidation state of carbon in inorganic compounds is +4, while +2 is found in carbon monoxide and transition metal carbonyl complexes. The largest sources of inorganic carbon are limestones, dolomites and carbon dioxide, but significant quantities occur in organic deposits of coal, peat, oil, and methane clathrates. Carbon forms a vast number of compounds, with about two hundred million having been described and indexed;[21] and yet that number is but a fraction of the number of theoretically possible compounds under standard conditions.
Characteristics
The
Carbon sublimes in a carbon arc, which has a temperature of about 5800 K (5,530 °C or 9,980 °F). Thus, irrespective of its allotropic form, carbon remains solid at higher temperatures than the highest-melting-point metals such as tungsten or rhenium. Although thermodynamically prone to oxidation, carbon resists oxidation more effectively than elements such as iron and copper, which are weaker reducing agents at room temperature.
Carbon is the sixth element, with a ground-state electron configuration of 1s22s22p2, of which the four outer electrons are valence electrons. Its first four ionisation energies, 1086.5, 2352.6, 4620.5 and 6222.7 kJ/mol, are much higher than those of the heavier group-14 elements. The electronegativity of carbon is 2.5, significantly higher than the heavier group-14 elements (1.8–1.9), but close to most of the nearby nonmetals, as well as some of the second- and third-row transition metals. Carbon's covalent radii are normally taken as 77.2 pm (C−C), 66.7 pm (C=C) and 60.3 pm (C≡C), although these may vary depending on coordination number and what the carbon is bonded to. In general, covalent radius decreases with lower coordination number and higher bond order.[26]
Carbon-based compounds form the basis of all known life on
- Fe
3O
4 + 4 C(s) + 2 O
2 → 3 Fe(s) + 4 CO
2(g).
Carbon reacts with sulfur to form carbon disulfide, and it reacts with steam in the coal-gas reaction used in coal gasification:
- C(s) + H2O(g) → CO(g) + H2(g).
Carbon combines with some metals at high temperatures to form metallic carbides, such as the iron carbide cementite in steel and tungsten carbide, widely used as an abrasive and for making hard tips for cutting tools.
The system of carbon allotropes spans a range of extremes:
Graphite is one of the softest materials known. | Synthetic nanocrystalline diamond is the hardest material known.[27] |
Graphite is a very good lubricant, displaying superlubricity.[28] | Diamond is the ultimate abrasive. |
Graphite is a conductor of electricity.[29] | Diamond is an excellent electrical insulator,[30] and has the highest breakdown electric field of any known material.
|
Some forms of graphite are used for other forms are good thermal conductors.
|
Diamond is the best known naturally occurring thermal conductor. |
Graphite is opaque. | Diamond is highly transparent. |
Graphite crystallizes in the hexagonal system.[31]
|
Diamond crystallizes in the cubic system .
|
Amorphous carbon is completely isotropic .
|
Carbon nanotubes are among the most anisotropic materials known.
|
Allotropes
Graphene is a two-dimensional sheet of carbon with the atoms arranged in a hexagonal lattice. As of 2009, graphene appears to be the strongest material ever tested.[42] The process of separating it from graphite will require some further technological development before it is economical for industrial processes.[43] If successful, graphene could be used in the construction of a space elevator. It could also be used to safely store hydrogen for use in a hydrogen based engine in cars.[44]
At very high pressures, carbon forms the more compact allotrope, diamond, having nearly twice the density of graphite. Here, each atom is bonded tetrahedrally to four others, forming a 3-dimensional network of puckered six-membered rings of atoms. Diamond has the same cubic structure as silicon and germanium, and because of the strength of the carbon-carbon bonds, it is the hardest naturally occurring substance measured by resistance to scratching. Contrary to the popular belief that "diamonds are forever", they are thermodynamically unstable (ΔfG°(diamond, 298 K) = 2.9 kJ/mol[46]) under normal conditions (298 K, 105 Pa) and should theoretically transform into graphite.[47] But due to a high activation energy barrier, the transition into graphite is so slow at normal temperature that it is unnoticeable. However, at very high temperatures diamond will turn into graphite, and diamonds can burn up in a house fire. The bottom left corner of the phase diagram for carbon has not been scrutinized experimentally. Although a computational study employing density functional theory methods reached the conclusion that as T → 0 K and p → 0 Pa, diamond becomes more stable than graphite by approximately 1.1 kJ/mol,[48] more recent and definitive experimental and computational studies show that graphite is more stable than diamond for T < 400 K, without applied pressure, by 2.7 kJ/mol at T = 0 K and 3.2 kJ/mol at T = 298.15 K.[49] Under some conditions, carbon crystallizes as lonsdaleite, a hexagonal crystal lattice with all atoms covalently bonded and properties similar to those of diamond.[38]
Of the other discovered allotropes,
In 2015, a team at the
In the vapor phase, some of the carbon is in the form of highly reactive diatomic carbon dicarbon (C2). When excited, this gas glows green.
Occurrence
Carbon is the
In 2014
It has been estimated that the solid earth as a whole contains 730
In combination with
Carbon is also found in
According to one source, in the period from 1751 to 2008 about 347 gigatonnes of carbon were released as carbon dioxide to the atmosphere from burning of fossil fuels.
Carbon is a constituent (about 12% by mass) of the very large masses of carbonate rock (limestone, dolomite, marble, and others). Coal is very rich in carbon (anthracite contains 92–98%)[65] and is the largest commercial source of mineral carbon, accounting for 4,000 gigatonnes or 80% of fossil fuel.[66]
As for individual carbon allotropes, graphite is found in large quantities in the United States (mostly in New York and Texas), Russia, Mexico, Greenland, and India. Natural diamonds occur in the rock kimberlite, found in ancient volcanic "necks", or "pipes". Most diamond deposits are in Africa, notably in South Africa, Namibia, Botswana, the Republic of the Congo, and Sierra Leone. Diamond deposits have also been found in Arkansas, Canada, the Russian Arctic, Brazil, and in Northern and Western Australia. Diamonds are now also being recovered from the ocean floor off the Cape of Good Hope. Diamonds are found naturally, but about 30% of all industrial diamonds used in the U.S. are now manufactured.
Carbon-14 is formed in upper layers of the troposphere and the stratosphere at altitudes of 9–15 km by a reaction that is precipitated by
Carbon-rich asteroids are relatively preponderant in the outer parts of the asteroid belt in the Solar System. These asteroids have not yet been directly sampled by scientists. The asteroids can be used in hypothetical space-based carbon mining, which may be possible in the future, but is currently technologically impossible.[69]
Isotopes
There are 15 known isotopes of carbon and the shortest-lived of these is 8C which decays through
Formation in stars
Formation of the carbon atomic nucleus occurs within a giant or supergiant star through the triple-alpha process. This requires a nearly simultaneous collision of three alpha particles (helium nuclei), as the products of further nuclear fusion reactions of helium with hydrogen or another helium nucleus produce lithium-5 and beryllium-8 respectively, both of which are highly unstable and decay almost instantly back into smaller nuclei.[78] The triple-alpha process happens in conditions of temperatures over 100 megakelvins and helium concentration that the rapid expansion and cooling of the early universe prohibited, and therefore no significant carbon was created during the Big Bang.
According to current physical cosmology theory, carbon is formed in the interiors of stars on the horizontal branch.[79] When massive stars die as supernova, the carbon is scattered into space as dust. This dust becomes component material for the formation of the next-generation star systems with accreted planets.[53][80] The Solar System is one such star system with an abundance of carbon, enabling the existence of life as we know it. It is the opinion of most scholars that all the carbon in the Solar System and the Milky Way comes from dying stars.[81][82][83]
The
Rotational transitions of various isotopic forms of carbon monoxide (for example, 12CO, 13CO, and 18CO) are detectable in the submillimeter wavelength range, and are used in the study of newly forming stars in molecular clouds.[84]
Carbon cycle
Under terrestrial conditions, conversion of one element to another is very rare. Therefore, the amount of carbon on Earth is effectively constant. Thus, processes that use carbon must obtain it from somewhere and dispose of it somewhere else. The paths of carbon in the environment form the
Compounds
Organic compounds
Carbon can form very long chains of interconnecting carbon–carbon bonds, a property that is called catenation. Carbon-carbon bonds are strong and stable. Through catenation, carbon forms a countless number of compounds. A tally of unique compounds shows that more contain carbon than do not.[89] A similar claim can be made for hydrogen because most organic compounds contain hydrogen chemically bonded to carbon or another common element like oxygen or nitrogen.
The simplest form of an organic molecule is the
In most stable compounds of carbon (and nearly all stable organic compounds), carbon obeys the octet rule and is tetravalent, meaning that a carbon atom forms a total of four covalent bonds (which may include double and triple bonds). Exceptions include a small number of stabilized carbocations (three bonds, positive charge), radicals (three bonds, neutral), carbanions (three bonds, negative charge) and carbenes (two bonds, neutral), although these species are much more likely to be encountered as unstable, reactive intermediates.
Carbon occurs in all known
When combined with oxygen and hydrogen, carbon can form many groups of important biological compounds including
Inorganic compounds
Commonly carbon-containing compounds which are associated with minerals or which do not contain bonds to the other carbon atoms, halogens, or hydrogen, are treated separately from classical
2CO
3), but as most compounds with multiple single-bonded oxygens on a single carbon it is unstable.[94] Through this intermediate, though, resonance-stabilized carbonate ions are produced. Some important minerals are carbonates, notably calcite. Carbon disulfide (CS
2) is similar.[25]
The other common oxide is
3O
2),[97] the unstable dicarbon monoxide (C2O),[98][99] carbon trioxide (CO3),[100][101] cyclopentanepentone (C5O5),[102] cyclohexanehexone (C6O6),[102] and mellitic anhydride
With reactive metals, such as tungsten, carbon forms either carbides (C4−) or acetylides (C2−
2) to form alloys with high melting points. These anions are also associated with methane and acetylene, both very weak acids. With an electronegativity of 2.5,[103] carbon prefers to form covalent bonds. A few carbides are covalent lattices, like carborundum (SiC), which resembles diamond. Nevertheless, even the most polar and salt-like of carbides are not completely ionic compounds.[104]
Organometallic compounds
Organometallic compounds by definition contain at least one carbon-metal covalent bond. A wide range of such compounds exist; major classes include simple alkyl-metal compounds (for example,
While carbon is understood to strongly prefer formation of four covalent bonds, other exotic bonding schemes are also known. Carboranes are highly stable dodecahedral derivatives of the [B12H12]2- unit, with one BH replaced with a CH+. Thus, the carbon is bonded to five boron atoms and one hydrogen atom. The cation [(Ph3PAu)6C]2+ contains an octahedral carbon bound to six phosphine-gold fragments. This phenomenon has been attributed to the aurophilicity of the gold ligands, which provide additional stabilization of an otherwise labile species.[105] In nature, the iron-molybdenum cofactor (FeMoco) responsible for microbial nitrogen fixation likewise has an octahedral carbon center (formally a carbide, C(-IV)) bonded to six iron atoms. In 2016, it was confirmed that, in line with earlier theoretical predictions, the hexamethylbenzene dication contains a carbon atom with six bonds. More specifically, the dication could be described structurally by the formulation [MeC(η5-C5Me5)]2+, making it an "organic metallocene" in which a MeC3+ fragment is bonded to a η5-C5Me5− fragment through all five of the carbons of the ring.[106]
It is important to note that in the cases above, each of the bonds to carbon contain less than two formal electron pairs. Thus, the formal electron count of these species does not exceed an octet. This makes them hypercoordinate but not hypervalent. Even in cases of alleged 10-C-5 species (that is, a carbon with five ligands and a formal electron count of ten), as reported by Akiba and co-workers,[107] electronic structure calculations conclude that the electron population around carbon is still less than eight, as is true for other compounds featuring four-electron three-center bonding.
History and etymology
The English name carbon comes from the Latin carbo for coal and charcoal,[108] whence also comes the French charbon, meaning charcoal. In German, Dutch and Danish, the names for carbon are Kohlenstoff, koolstof, and kulstof respectively, all literally meaning coal-substance.
Carbon was discovered in prehistory and was known in the forms of soot and charcoal to the earliest human civilizations. Diamonds were known probably as early as 2500 BCE in China, while carbon in the form of charcoal was made around Roman times by the same chemistry as it is today, by heating wood in a pyramid covered with clay to exclude air.[109][110]
In 1722, René Antoine Ferchault de Réaumur demonstrated that iron was transformed into steel through the absorption of some substance, now known to be carbon.[111] In 1772, Antoine Lavoisier showed that diamonds are a form of carbon; when he burned samples of charcoal and diamond and found that neither produced any water and that both released the same amount of carbon dioxide per gram. In 1779,[112] Carl Wilhelm Scheele showed that graphite, which had been thought of as a form of lead, was instead identical with charcoal but with a small admixture of iron, and that it gave "aerial acid" (his name for carbon dioxide) when oxidized with nitric acid.[113] In 1786, the French scientists Claude Louis Berthollet, Gaspard Monge and C. A. Vandermonde confirmed that graphite was mostly carbon by oxidizing it in oxygen in much the same way Lavoisier had done with diamond.[114] Some iron again was left, which the French scientists thought was necessary to the graphite structure. In their publication they proposed the name carbone (Latin carbonum) for the element in graphite which was given off as a gas upon burning graphite. Antoine Lavoisier then listed carbon as an element in his 1789 textbook.[113]
A new
Production
Graphite
Commercially viable natural deposits of graphite occur in many parts of the world, but the most important sources economically are in China, India, Brazil, and North Korea.[citation needed] Graphite deposits are of metamorphic origin, found in association with quartz, mica, and feldspars in schists, gneisses, and metamorphosed sandstones and limestone as lenses or veins, sometimes of a metre or more in thickness. Deposits of graphite in Borrowdale, Cumberland, England were at first of sufficient size and purity that, until the 19th century, pencils were made by sawing blocks of natural graphite into strips before encasing the strips in wood. Today, smaller deposits of graphite are obtained by crushing the parent rock and floating the lighter graphite out on water.[117]
There are three types of natural graphite—amorphous, flake or crystalline flake, and vein or lump. Amorphous graphite is the lowest quality and most abundant. Contrary to science, in industry "amorphous" refers to very small crystal size rather than complete lack of crystal structure. Amorphous is used for lower value graphite products and is the lowest priced graphite. Large amorphous graphite deposits are found in China, Europe, Mexico and the United States. Flake graphite is less common and of higher quality than amorphous; it occurs as separate plates that crystallized in metamorphic rock. Flake graphite can be four times the price of amorphous. Good quality flakes can be processed into expandable graphite for many uses, such as flame retardants. The foremost deposits are found in Austria, Brazil, Canada, China, Germany and Madagascar. Vein or lump graphite is the rarest, most valuable, and highest quality type of natural graphite. It occurs in veins along intrusive contacts in solid lumps, and it is only commercially mined in Sri Lanka.[117]
According to the
Diamond
The diamond supply chain is controlled by a limited number of powerful businesses, and is also highly concentrated in a small number of locations around the world (see figure).
Only a very small fraction of the diamond ore consists of actual diamonds. The ore is crushed, during which care has to be taken in order to prevent larger diamonds from being destroyed in this process and subsequently the particles are sorted by density. Today, diamonds are located in the diamond-rich density fraction with the help of X-ray fluorescence, after which the final sorting steps are done by hand. Before the use of X-rays became commonplace, the separation was done with grease belts; diamonds have a stronger tendency to stick to grease than the other minerals in the ore.[118]
Historically diamonds were known to be found only in alluvial deposits in
Diamond production of primary deposits (kimberlites and lamproites) only started in the 1870s after the discovery of the diamond fields in South Africa. Production has increased over time and an accumulated total of over 4.5 billion carats have been mined since that date.
In the United States, diamonds have been found in
Applications
Carbon is essential to all known living systems, and without it life as we know it could not exist (see
The uses of carbon and its compounds are extremely varied. It can form
Diamonds
The diamond industry falls into two categories: one dealing with gem-grade diamonds and the other, with industrial-grade diamonds. While a large trade in both types of diamonds exists, the two markets function dramatically differently.
Unlike precious metals such as gold or platinum, gem diamonds do not trade as a commodity: there is a substantial mark-up in the sale of diamonds, and there is not a very active market for resale of diamonds.
Industrial diamonds are valued mostly for their hardness and heat conductivity, with the gemological qualities of clarity and color being mostly irrelevant. About 80% of mined diamonds (equal to about 100 million carats or 20 tonnes annually) are unsuitable for use as gemstones and relegated for industrial use (known as bort).[131] Synthetic diamonds, invented in the 1950s, found almost immediate industrial applications; 3 billion carats (600 tonnes) of synthetic diamond is produced annually.[132]
The dominant industrial use of diamond is in cutting, drilling, grinding, and polishing. Most of these applications do not require large diamonds; in fact, most diamonds of gem-quality except for their small size can be used industrially. Diamonds are embedded in drill tips or saw blades, or ground into a powder for use in grinding and polishing applications.[133] Specialized applications include use in laboratories as containment for high-pressure experiments (see diamond anvil cell), high-performance bearings, and limited use in specialized windows.[134][135] With the continuing advances in the production of synthetic diamonds, new applications are becoming feasible. Garnering much excitement is the possible use of diamond as a semiconductor suitable for microchips, and because of its exceptional heat conductance property, as a heat sink in electronics.[136]
Precautions
Pure carbon has extremely low
Carbon generally has low toxicity to life on Earth; but carbon nanoparticles are deadly to Drosophila.[139]
Carbon may burn vigorously and brightly in the presence of air at high temperatures. Large accumulations of coal, which have remained inert for hundreds of millions of years in the absence of oxygen, may spontaneously combust when exposed to air in coal mine waste tips, ship cargo holds and coal bunkers,[140][141] and storage dumps.
In
The great variety of carbon compounds include such lethal poisons as
See also
References
- ^ "Standard Atomic Weights: Carbon". CIAAW. 2009.
- ISSN 1365-3075.
- ^ ISBN 978-1-62708-155-9.
- ISBN 0-8493-0486-5.
- ^ .
- ^ .
- ^ "Fourier Transform Spectroscopy of the Electronic Transition of the Jet-Cooled CCI Free Radical" (PDF). Retrieved 2007-12-06.
- ^ "Fourier Transform Spectroscopy of the System of CP" (PDF). Retrieved 2007-12-06.
- ^ "Carbon: Binary compounds". Retrieved 2007-12-06.
- ^ a b c d e Properties of diamond, Ioffe Institute Database
- ^ "Material Properties- Misc Materials". www.nde-ed.org. Retrieved 12 November 2016.
- ^ Magnetic susceptibility of the elements and inorganic compounds, in Handbook of Chemistry and Physics 81st edition, CRC press.
- ISBN 978-0-8493-0464-4.
- ^ "History of Carbon and Carbon Materials - Center for Applied Energy Research - University of Kentucky". Caer.uky.edu. Retrieved 2008-09-12.
- ^ Senese, Fred (2000-09-09). "Who discovered carbon?". Frostburg State University. Retrieved 2007-11-24.
- ^ "carbon | Facts, Uses, & Properties". Encyclopedia Britannica. Archived from the original on 2017-10-24.
- ^ "carbon". Britannica encyclopedia. 22 February 2024.
- ^ a b c "Carbon – Naturally occurring isotopes". WebElements Periodic Table. Archived from the original on 2008-09-08. Retrieved 2008-10-09.
- ^ "History of Carbon". Archived from the original on 2012-11-01. Retrieved 2013-01-10.
- ISBN 978-0-321-77565-8.
- ^ a b Chemical Abstracts Service (2023). "CAS Registry". Retrieved 2023-02-12.
- .
- S2CID 4362313.
- ^ Zazula, J. M. (1997). "On Graphite Transformations at High Temperature and Pressure Induced by Absorption of the LHC Beam" (PDF). CERN. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2009-03-25. Retrieved 2009-06-06.
- ^ a b Greenwood and Earnshaw, pp. 289–292.
- ^ Greenwood and Earnshaw, pp. 276–8.
- S2CID 52856300.
- (PDF) from the original on 2011-09-17.
- S2CID 250886376.
- S2CID 202574625.
- ISBN 978-90-5699-228-6.
- ^ a b c Unwin, Peter. "Fullerenes(An Overview)". Archived from the original on 2007-12-01. Retrieved 2007-12-08.
- ^ ISBN 978-0-8493-9602-1.
- ^ ISBN 978-3-540-41086-7.
- ^ S2CID 6447122.
- .
- .
- ^ S2CID 4184812.
- ^ S2CID 220342075. Archived from the original(PDF) on 2012-03-19. Retrieved 2011-07-06.
- S2CID 96050247.
- ^ ISBN 978-0-7923-5323-2. Archivedfrom the original on 23 November 2012. Retrieved 2011-06-06.
- S2CID 206512830.
- Phil Schewe (July 28, 2008). "World's Strongest Material". Inside Science News Service (Press release). Archived from the original on 2009-05-31.
- ^ Sanderson, Bill (2008-08-25). "Toughest Stuff Known to Man : Discovery Opens Door to Space Elevator". nypost.com. Archived from the original on 2008-09-06. Retrieved 2008-10-09.
- ISSN 0897-4756.
- ISBN 978-0-423-87500-3. Archivedfrom the original on 2012-11-23. Retrieved 2011-05-01.
- .
- ^ "World of Carbon – Interactive Nano-visulisation in Science & Engineering Education (IN-VSEE)". Archived from the original on 2001-05-31. Retrieved 2008-10-09.
- S2CID 13359849.
- S2CID 221888151.
- ^ Schewe, Phil & Stein, Ben (March 26, 2004). "Carbon Nanofoam is the World's First Pure Carbon Magnet". Physics News Update. 678 (1). Archived from the original on March 7, 2012.
- PMID 16240306.
- ^ "Researchers find new phase of carbon, make diamond at room temperature". news.ncsu.edu (Press release). 2015-11-30. Archived from the original on 2016-04-06. Retrieved 2016-04-06.
- ^ a b c Hoover, Rachel (21 February 2014). "Need to Track Organic Nano-Particles Across the Universe? NASA's Got an App for That". NASA. Archived from the original on 6 September 2015. Retrieved 2014-02-22.
- ISBN 978-0-8165-2562-1. Archivedfrom the original on 2017-11-22. Retrieved 2017-05-07.
- ISBN 978-0-8165-0902-7.
- ^ "Online Database Tracks Organic Nano-Particles Across the Universe". Sci Tech Daily. February 24, 2014. Archived from the original on March 18, 2015. Retrieved 2015-03-10.
- ISBN 978-0-12-685185-4.
- PMID 29784790.
- from the original on 2015-03-16.
- ^ "Wonderfuel: Welcome to the age of unconventional gas" Archived 2014-12-09 at the Wayback Machine by Helen Knight, New Scientist, 12 June 2010, pp. 44–7.
- ^ Ocean methane stocks 'overstated' Archived 2013-04-25 at the Wayback Machine, BBC, 17 Feb. 2004.
- ^ "Ice on fire: The next fossil fuel" Archived 2015-02-22 at the Wayback Machine by Fred Pearce, New Scientist, 27 June 2009, pp. 30–33.
- ^ Calculated from file global.1751_2008.csv in "Index of /ftp/ndp030/CSV-FILES". Archived from the original on 2011-10-22. Retrieved 2011-11-06. from the Carbon Dioxide Information Analysis Center.
- ^ Rachel Gross (Sep 21, 2013). "Deep, and dank mysterious". New Scientist: 40–43. Archived from the original on 2013-09-21.
- ISBN 978-0-89520-404-2.
- ^ Kasting, James (1998). "The Carbon Cycle, Climate, and the Long-Term Effects of Fossil Fuel Burning". Consequences: The Nature and Implication of Environmental Change. 4 (1). Archived from the original on 2008-10-24.
- ^ "Carbon-14 formation". Archived from the original on 1 August 2015. Retrieved 13 October 2014.
- ISBN 978-0-582-49309-4.
- ^ Nichols, Charles R. "Voltatile Products from Carbonaceous Asteroids" (PDF). UAPress.Arizona.edu. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2 July 2016. Retrieved 12 November 2016.
- PMID 9683412.
- ^ "Official SI Unit definitions". Archived from the original on 2007-10-14. Retrieved 2007-12-21.
- ISBN 978-0-7141-2047-8.
- ^ Brown, Tom (March 1, 2006). "Carbon Goes Full Circle in the Amazon". Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory. Archived from the original on September 22, 2008. Retrieved 2007-11-25.
- ^ Libby, W. F. (1952). Radiocarbon dating. Chicago University Press and references therein.
- ^ Westgren, A. (1960). "The Nobel Prize in Chemistry 1960". Nobel Foundation. Archived from the original on 2007-10-25. Retrieved 2007-11-25.
- ^ "Use query for carbon-8". barwinski.net. Archived from the original on 2005-02-07. Retrieved 2007-12-21.
- S2CID 117737493.
- doi:10.1016/S0375-9474(97)00482-X. Archived from the original(PDF) on 2008-09-23.
- ISBN 978-0-8053-0348-3.
- ISBN 978-0-7503-0624-9.
- OCLC 940282526.
- ^ "Is my body really made up of star stuff?". NASA. May 2003. Retrieved 2023-03-17.
- ^ Firaque, Kabir (2020-07-10). "Explained: How stars provided the carbon that makes life possible". The Indian Express. Retrieved 2023-03-17.
- ISBN 978-90-277-0796-3. Archivedfrom the original on 2012-11-23. Retrieved 2011-06-06.
- ^ Mannion, pp. 51–54.
- ^ Mannion, pp. 84–88.
- S2CID 1779934.
- (PDF) from the original on 2022-10-11.
- ISBN 978-0-19-873380-5. Archivedfrom the original on 2017-11-22. Retrieved 2017-05-07.
- ^ Mannion pp. 27–51
- ^ Mannion pp. 84–91
- ISBN 978-0-7167-1766-9
- S2CID 20097153.
- PMID 10760883.
- PMID 16992272.
- PMID 12679050.
- ^ "Compounds of carbon: carbon suboxide". Archived from the original on 2007-12-07. Retrieved 2007-12-03.
- .
- doi:10.1063/1.460121.
- .
- .
- ^ PMID 31580622. Archived from the original(PDF) on 2009-03-25. Retrieved 2009-03-21.
- ISBN 978-0-8014-0333-0.
- ^ Greenwood and Earnshaw, pp. 297–301
- .
- ^ Ritter, Stephen K. "Six bonds to carbon: Confirmed". Chemical & Engineering News. Archived from the original on 2017-01-09.
- PMID 15783218.
- ^ Shorter Oxford English Dictionary, Oxford University Press
- ^ "Chinese made first use of diamond". BBC News. 17 May 2005. Archived from the original on 20 March 2007. Retrieved 2007-03-21.
- ^ van der Krogt, Peter. "Carbonium/Carbon at Elementymology & Elements Multidict". Archived from the original on 2010-01-23. Retrieved 2010-01-06.
- ^ Ferchault de Réaumur, R.-A. (1722). L'art de convertir le fer forgé en acier, et l'art d'adoucir le fer fondu, ou de faire des ouvrages de fer fondu aussi finis que le fer forgé (English translation from 1956). Paris, Chicago.
- ^ "Carbon". Canada Connects. Archived from the original on 2010-10-27. Retrieved 2010-12-07.
- ^ a b Senese, Fred (2000-09-09). "Who discovered carbon?". Frostburg State University. Archived from the original on 2007-12-07. Retrieved 2007-11-24.
- ^ Giolitti, Federico (1914). The Cementation of Iron and Steel. McGraw-Hill Book Company, inc.
- S2CID 4314237.
- ^ "The Nobel Prize in Chemistry 1996 "for their discovery of fullerenes"". Archived from the original on 2007-10-11. Retrieved 2007-12-21.
- ^ a b c USGS Minerals Yearbook: Graphite, 2009 Archived 2008-09-16 at the Wayback Machine and Graphite: Mineral Commodity Summaries 2011
- ISBN 978-0-521-62935-5.
- ^ Catelle, W. R. (1911). The Diamond. John Lane Company. p. 159. discussion on alluvial diamonds in India and elsewhere as well as earliest finds
- ^ Ball, V. (1881). Diamonds, Gold and Coal of India. London, Truebner & Co. Ball was a Geologist in British service. Chapter I, Page 1
- ISBN 978-1-4179-7715-4.
- .
- ^ Marshall, Stephen; Shore, Josh (2004-10-22). "The Diamond Life". Guerrilla News Network. Archived from the original on 2008-06-09. Retrieved 2008-10-10.
- ^ Zimnisky, Paul (21 May 2018). "Global Diamond Supply Expected to Decrease 3.4% to 147M Carats in 2018". Kitco.com. Archived from the original on 11 August 2023. Retrieved 9 November 2020.
- ^ Lorenz, V. (2007). "Argyle in Western Australia: The world's richest diamantiferous pipe; its past and future". Gemmologie, Zeitschrift der Deutschen Gemmologischen Gesellschaft. 56 (1/2): 35–40.
- ^ Mannion pp. 25–26
- ^ "Microscopic diamond found in Montana". The Montana Standard. 2004-10-17. Archived from the original on 2005-01-21. Retrieved 2008-10-10.
- ^ Cooke, Sarah (2004-10-19). "Microscopic Diamond Found in Montana". Livescience.com. Archived from the original on 2008-07-05. Retrieved 2008-09-12.
- ^ "Delta News / Press Releases / Publications". Deltamine.com. Archived from the original on 2008-05-26. Retrieved 2008-09-12.
- .
- ^ Holtzapffel, Ch. (1856). Turning And Mechanical Manipulation. Charles Holtzapffel. Internet Archive Archived 2016-03-26 at the Wayback Machine
- ^ "Industrial Diamonds Statistics and Information". United States Geological Survey. Archived from the original on 2009-05-06. Retrieved 2009-05-05.
- .
- ISBN 978-0-8194-3482-1.
- ISBN 978-0-8018-7921-0.
- .
- S2CID 42284618.
- PMID 11171936.
- ^ Carbon Nanoparticles Toxic To Adult Fruit Flies But Benign To Young Archived 2011-11-02 at the Wayback Machine ScienceDaily (Aug. 17, 2009)
- ^ "Press Release – Titanic Disaster: New Theory Fingers Coal Fire". www.geosociety.org. Archived from the original on 2016-04-14. Retrieved 2016-04-06.
- ^ McSherry, Patrick. "Coal bunker Fire". www.spanamwar.com. Archived from the original on 2016-03-23. Retrieved 2016-04-06.
Bibliography
- ISBN 978-0-08-037941-8.
- Mannion, A. M. (12 January 2006). Carbon and Its Domestication. ISBN 978-1-4020-3956-0.
External links
- Carbon on In Our Time at the BBC
- Carbon at The Periodic Table of Videos(University of Nottingham)
- Carbon on Britannica
- Extensive Carbon page at asu.edu (archived 18 June 2010)
- Electrochemical uses of carbon (archived 9 November 2001)
- Carbon—Super Stuff. Animation with sound and interactive 3D-models. (archived 9 November 2012)