Cardinal Richelieu
Nicolas Brulart de Sillery | |
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Personal details | |
Born | Armand Jean du Plessis 9 September 1585 Paris, Territorial abbot of Cluny (1635–1642) |
Signature | |
Coat of arms | |
Styles of Armand Jean du Plessis de Richelieu | ||
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Reference style His Grand Eminence | | |
Spoken style | Your Grand Eminence | |
Informal style | Cardinal | |
See | Luçon |
Armand Jean du Plessis, 1st Duke of Richelieu (French:
Consecrated a bishop in 1607, Richelieu was appointed Foreign Secretary in 1616. He continued to rise through the hierarchy of both the Catholic Church and the French government, becoming a cardinal in 1622 and chief minister to King Louis XIII of France in 1624. He retained that office until his death in 1642, when he was succeeded by Cardinal Mazarin, whose career he had fostered. Richelieu became engaged in a bitter dispute with Marie de Médici, the king's mother, and formerly his close ally.
Richelieu sought to consolidate royal
An alumnus of the University of Paris and headmaster of the College of Sorbonne, Richelieu renovated and extended the institution. He became famous for his patronage of the arts and founded the Académie Française, the learned society responsible for matters pertaining to the French language. As an advocate for Samuel de Champlain and New France, he founded (1627) the Compagnie des Cent-Associés; he also negotiated the 1632 Treaty of Saint-Germain-en-Laye under which Quebec City returned to French rule after English privateers took it in 1629. He was created Duke of Richelieu in 1629.
Richelieu is known as the inventor of the table knife. Annoyed by the bad manners that were commonly displayed at the dining table by users of sharp knives (who would often use them to pick their teeth),[6] in 1637 Richelieu ordered that all of the knives on his dining table have their blades dulled and their tips rounded. The design quickly became popular throughout France and later spread to other countries.[7]
Richelieu has frequently been depicted in popular fiction, notably as the lead villain in Alexandre Dumas's 1844 novel The Three Musketeers and its numerous film adaptations.
Early life
Born in Paris on 9 September 1585, Armand du Plessis was the fourth of five children and the last of three sons: he was delicate from childhood and suffered frequent bouts of ill-health throughout his life. His family belonged to the lesser nobility of Poitou:[8] his father, François du Plessis, seigneur de Richelieu, was a soldier and courtier who served as the Grand Provost of France,[9] and his mother, Susanne de La Porte, was the daughter of a famous jurist.[10]
When he was five years old, Richelieu's father died of fever in the French Wars of Religion,[11] leaving the family in debt; with the aid of royal grants, however, the family was able to avoid financial difficulties. At the age of 9, young Richelieu was sent to the College of Navarre in Paris to study philosophy.[12] Thereafter, he began to train for a military career.[13] There, he learned mathematics, fencing, horse riding, dancing skills, courtly manners, and military drill.[14][15] His private life seems to have been typical for a young officer of the era; in 1605, aged twenty, he was treated by Théodore de Mayerne for gonorrhea.[16]
In 1606, Henry IV nominated Richelieu to become Bishop of Luçon.[18] As Richelieu had not yet reached the canonical minimum age, it was necessary that he journey to Rome for a special dispensation from Pope Paul V. This secured, Richelieu was consecrated bishop in April 1607. Soon after he returned to his diocese in 1608, Richelieu was heralded as a reformer.[21] He became the first bishop in France to implement the institutional reforms prescribed by the Council of Trent between 1545 and 1563.[22]
At about this time, Richelieu became a friend of
Rise to power
In 1614, the clergymen of Poitou asked Richelieu to be one of their representatives to the Estates-General.[24] There, he was a vigorous advocate of the Catholic Church, arguing that it should be exempt from taxes and that bishops should have more political power. He was the most prominent clergyman to support the adoption of the decrees of the Council of Trent throughout France;[25] the Third Estate (commoners) was his chief opponent in this endeavour. At the end of the assembly, the First Estate (the clergy) chose him to deliver the address enumerating its petitions and decisions.[26] Soon after the dissolution of the Estates-General, Richelieu entered the service of King Louis XIII's wife, Anne of Austria, as her almoner.[27]
Richelieu advanced politically by faithfully serving the
In 1619, Marie de Médicis escaped from her confinement in the
After the death of the king's favourite, the duc de Luynes, in 1621, Richelieu rose to power quickly. The year after, the king nominated Richelieu for a cardinalate, which Pope Gregory XV accordingly granted in September 1622.[35] Crises in France, including a rebellion of the Huguenots, rendered Richelieu a nearly indispensable advisor to the king. After he was appointed to the royal council of ministers on 29 April 1624,[36] he intrigued against the chief minister Charles, duc de La Vieuville.[33] On 12 August of the same year, La Vieuville was arrested on charges of corruption, and Cardinal Richelieu took his place as the king's principal minister the following day, but the Cardinal de la Rochefoucauld nominally remained president of the council (Richelieu was officially appointed president in November 1629).[37]
Chief minister
Cardinal Richelieu's policy involved two primary goals:
Shortly after he became Louis' principal minister, he was faced with a
To further consolidate power in France, Richelieu sought to suppress the influence of the feudal nobility. In 1626, he abolished the position of Constable of France and ordered all fortified castles razed, with the exception only of those needed to defend against invaders.[43] Thus he stripped the princes, dukes, and lesser aristocrats of important defences that could have been used against the king's armies during rebellions. As a result, Richelieu was hated by most of the nobility.
Another obstacle to the centralization of power was religious division in France. The
Although the Huguenots suffered a major defeat at La Rochelle, they continued to fight, led by
Habsburg Spain exploited the French conflict with the Huguenots to extend its influence in northern Italy. It funded the Huguenot rebels to keep the French army occupied, meanwhile expanding its Italian dominions. Richelieu, however, responded aggressively; after La Rochelle capitulated, he personally led the French army to northern Italy to restrain Spain. On 26 November 1629, he was created
Meanwhile, Marie de Médicis was exiled to
Thirty Years' War
Before Richelieu's ascent to power, most of Europe had become enmeshed in the
In 1629, Emperor Ferdinand II subjugated many of his Protestant opponents in Germany. Richelieu, alarmed by Ferdinand's growing influence, incited Sweden to intervene, providing money.[55] In the meantime, France and Spain remained hostile due to Spain's ambitions in northern Italy. At that time northern Italy was a major strategic region in Europe's balance of power, serving as a link between the Habsburgs in the Empire and in Spain. Had the imperial armies dominated this region, France would have been threatened by Habsburg encirclement. Spain was meanwhile seeking papal approval for a universal monarchy. When in 1630 French diplomats in Regensburg agreed to make peace with Spain, Richelieu refused to support them. The agreement would have prohibited French interference in Germany. Therefore, Richelieu advised Louis XIII to refuse to ratify the treaty. In 1631, he allied France to Sweden, which had just invaded the empire, in the Treaty of Bärwalde.[55]
Military expenses placed a considerable strain on royal revenues. In response, Richelieu raised the gabelle (salt tax) and the taille (land tax).[56] The taille was enforced to provide funds to raise armies and wage war. The clergy, nobility, and high bourgeoisie either were exempt or could easily avoid payment, so the burden fell on the poorest segment of the nation. To collect taxes more efficiently, and to keep corruption to a minimum, Richelieu bypassed local tax officials, replacing them with intendants (officials in the direct service of the Crown).[57] Richelieu's financial scheme, however, caused unrest among the peasants; there were several uprisings in 1636 to 1639.[58] Richelieu crushed the revolts violently, and dealt with the rebels harshly.[59]
Because he openly aligned France with Protestant powers, Richelieu was denounced by many as a traitor to the Roman Catholic Church. (He ordered ships of war from Jean Bicker.[60]) Military action, at first, was disastrous for the French, with many victories going to Spain and the Empire.[61] Neither side, however, could obtain a decisive advantage, and the conflict lingered on after Richelieu's death. Richelieu was instrumental in redirecting the Thirty Years' War from the conflict of Protestantism versus Catholicism to that of nationalism versus Habsburg hegemony.[62][63] [page needed] In this conflict France effectively drained the already overstretched resources of the Habsburg empire and drove it inexorably towards bankruptcy.[64] The defeat of Habsburg forces at the Battle of Lens in 1648, coupled with their failure to prevent a French invasion of Catalonia, effectively spelled the end for Habsburg domination of the continent, and for the personal career of Spanish prime minister Olivares.[64]
New World
When Richelieu came to power, New France, where the French had a foothold since Jacques Cartier, had no more than 100 permanent European inhabitants.[65] Richelieu encouraged Louis XIII to colonize the Americas by the foundation of the Compagnie de la Nouvelle France in imitation of the Dutch West India Company. Unlike the other colonial powers, France encouraged a peaceful coexistence in New France between natives and colonists and sought the integration of Indians into colonial society.[66][failed verification][67] Samuel de Champlain, governor of New France at the time of Richelieu, saw intermarriage between French and Indians as a solution to increase population in its colony.[68] Under the guidance of Richelieu, Louis XIII issued the Ordonnance of 1627 by which the Indians, converted to Catholicism, were considered as "natural Frenchmen":
The descendants of the French who are accustomed to this country [New France], together with all the Indians who will be brought to the knowledge of the faith and will profess it, shall be deemed and renowned natural Frenchmen, and as such may come to live in France when they want, and acquire, donate, and succeed and accept donations and legacies, just as true French subjects, without being required to take letters of declaration of naturalization.[69]
The 1666 census of New France, conducted some 20 years after the death of Cardinal Richelieu, showed a population of 3,215 habitants in New France, many more than there had been only a few decades earlier, but also a great difference in the number of men (2,034) and women (1,181).[70]
Final years
Toward the end of his life, Richelieu alienated many people, including
As he neared death, Richelieu faced a plot that threatened to remove him from power. The cardinal had introduced a young man named
However, Richelieu was now dying. For many years he had suffered from recurrent fevers (possibly malaria), strangury, intestinal tuberculosis with fistula, and migraine. Now his right arm was suppurating with tubercular osteitis, and he coughed blood (after his death, his lungs were found to have extensive cavities and caseous necrosis). His doctors continued to bleed him frequently, further weakening him.[78] As he felt his death approaching, he named Mazarin, one of his most faithful followers, to succeed him as chief minister to the king.[79]
Richelieu died on 4 December 1642, aged 57. His body was embalmed and interred at the church of the Sorbonne. By that time, the populace detested him. In many provinces of the kingdom, bonfires were kindled to celebrate his death.[80] During the French Revolution, the corpse was removed from its tomb, and the mummified front of his head, having been removed and replaced during the original embalming process, was stolen. It ended up in the possession of Nicholas Armez of Brittany by 1796, and he occasionally exhibited the well-preserved face. His nephew, Louis-Philippe Armez, inherited it and also occasionally exhibited it and lent it out for study. In 1866, Napoleon III persuaded Armez to return the face to the government for re-interment with the rest of Richelieu's body. An investigation of subsidence of the church floor enabled the head to be photographed in 1895.[81][82]
Arts and culture
Richelieu was a
In 1622, Richelieu was elected the proviseur or principal of the Sorbonne.[90] He presided over the renovation of the college's buildings and over the construction of its famous chapel, where he is now entombed. As he was Bishop of Luçon, his statue stands outside the Luçon cathedral.[citation needed]
Richelieu oversaw the construction of his own palace in Paris, the
The fittings of his chapel in the Palais-Cardinal, for which Simon Vouet executed the paintings, were of solid gold – crucifix, chalice,
Legacy
This section needs additional citations for verification. (August 2020) |
Richelieu's tenure was a crucial period of reform for France. Earlier, the nation's political structure was largely feudal, with powerful nobles and a wide variety of laws in different regions.[97] Parts of the nobility periodically conspired against the king, raised private armies, and allied themselves with foreign powers. This system gave way to centralized power under Richelieu.[98] Local and even religious interests were subordinated to those of the whole nation, and of the embodiment of the nation – the king. Equally critical for France was Richelieu's foreign policy, which helped restrain Habsburg influence in Europe. Richelieu did not survive to the end of the Thirty Years' War. However, the conflict ended in 1648, with France emerging in a far better position than any other power, and the Holy Roman Empire entering a period of decline.[citation needed]
Richelieu's successes were extremely important to Louis XIII's successor, King Louis XIV. He continued Richelieu's work of creating an absolute monarchy; in the same vein as the cardinal, he enacted policies that further suppressed the once-mighty aristocracy, and utterly destroyed all remnants of Huguenot political power with the Edict of Fontainebleau. Moreover, Louis took advantage of his nation's success during the Thirty Years' War to establish French hegemony in continental Europe. Thus, Richelieu's policies were the requisite prelude to Louis XIV becoming the most powerful monarch, and France the most powerful nation, in all of Europe during the late seventeenth century.[citation needed]
Richelieu is also notable for the authoritarian measures he employed to maintain power. He censored the press,
Richelieu's motives are the focus of much debate among historians: some see him as a patriotic supporter of the monarchy, while others view him as a power-hungry cynic. The latter image gained further currency owing to Alexandre Dumas' The Three Musketeers, which depicts Richelieu as a self-serving and ruthless de facto ruler of France.[citation needed]
Despite such arguments, Richelieu remains an honoured personality in France. He has given his name to a battleship and a battleship class.
His legacy is also important for the world at large; his ideas of a strong nation-state and aggressive foreign policy helped create the modern system of international politics. The notions of
His pioneering approach to French diplomatic relations using raison d'etat vis-a-vis the power relationship at play were first frowned upon but later emulated by other European nation-states to add to their diplomatic strategic arsenal.[100]
A less renowned aspect of his legacy is his involvement with Samuel de Champlain and the fledgling colony along the St. Lawrence River. The retention and promotion of Canada under Richelieu allowed it – and through the settlement's strategic location, the St. Lawrence-Great Lakes gateway into the North American interior – to develop into a French empire in North America, parts of which eventually became modern Canada and Louisiana.[citation needed]
As a statesman and churchman, Richelieu played an important role in shaping France's prominence in the 17th century and influencing the secularization of international policies during the Thirty Years' War.[101]
Portrayals in fiction
As of April 2013, the Internet Movie Database listed 94 films and television programs in which Cardinal Richelieu is a character. Richelieu is one of the clergymen more frequently portrayed in film, notably in the many versions of
.Richelieu is indirectly mentioned in a famous line of Alessandro Manzoni's novel The Betrothed (1827–1840), set in 1628, as a Lombard peasant expresses his own conspiracy theories about the bread riots happening in Milan.
The 1839 play Richelieu; Or the Conspiracy by Edward Bulwer-Lytton portrayed Richelieu uttering the now famous line "The pen is mightier than the sword." The play was adapted into the 1935 film Cardinal Richelieu.[citation needed]
The Monty Python's Flying Circus episode "How to Recognise Different Types of Trees from Quite a Long Way Away", first released in 1969, features the sketch "Court Scene with Cardinal Richelieu", in which Richelieu (played by Michael Palin) possesses the casual and somewhat smarmy demeanor of a master of ceremonies.[102]
In the 1632/Ring of Fire series by Eric Flint, he is one of the primary antagonists to the nascent United States of Europe.
Richelieu and Louis XIII are depicted in Ken Russell's 1971 film The Devils.
Richelieu is a minor and eventually a major character in the Fortune de France novel series by Robert Merle.
Literary works
- Political Testament[103]
- The principal points of the faith of the Catholic Church defended (1635)[104]
- Mémoires du cardinal de Richelieu, sur le règne de Louis XIII[105]
Honours
Many sites and landmarks were named to honor Cardinal Richelieu. They include:[34]
- Richelieu, Indre et Loire, a town founded by the cardinal
- Avenue Richelieu, located in Shawinigan, Quebec, Canada
- The provincial electoral district of Richelieu, Quebec
- Richelieu River, in Montérégie, Quebec
- Richelieu Squadron, a squadron of Officer Cadets from the Royal Military College Saint-Jean.[106]
- A wing of the Louvre Museum, Paris, France
- Richelieu-Drouot, or the historical site of the Bibliothèque nationale de France
- French ship Richelieu, four warships of the French Navy
There is also an ornate style of lace, Richelieu lace, named in honor of the cardinal.[107]
See also
Notes
- ^ UK: /ˈrɪʃəljɜː, ˈriːʃ-/,[1][2][3] US: /ˈrɪʃəl(j)uː, ˈriːʃ-/;[3][4][5] French: Cardinal de Richelieu [kaʁdinal d(ə) ʁiʃ(ə)ljø] ⓘ
References
- ^ "Richelieu". Collins English Dictionary. HarperCollins. Archived from the original on 29 July 2019. Retrieved 29 July 2019.
- ^ "Richelieu, Duc de". Lexico UK English Dictionary. Oxford University Press. Archived from the original on 20 March 2022.
- ^ a b "Richelieu, Cardinal". Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English. Longman. Archived from the original on 6 October 2019. Retrieved 6 October 2019.
- ^ "Richelieu". The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language (5th ed.). HarperCollins. Retrieved 29 July 2019.
- ^ "Richelieu". Merriam-Webster.com Dictionary. Retrieved 29 July 2019.
- ISBN 978-1-25-008295-4. Retrieved 23 June 2023.
In Richelieu's day it was common for everyone, especially the quarrelsome menfolk, not merely to disdain the forks and napkins bequeathed by Henri III, but to pick their teeth at table with their knives – or stab tablemates. Richelieu abhorred coarseness and petty violence, especially if it stained his table linens.
- ^ Long, Tony. "May 13, 1637: Cardinal Richelieu Makes His Point". Wired. Archived from the original on 15 May 2022. Retrieved 14 April 2022.
- ^ Bergin, pp. 14–15.
- ^ Treasure, p. 3.
- ^ Bergin, pp. 18–19.
- ^ Bergin, p. 24.
- ^ Bergin, p. 55.
- ^ Wedgwood, p. 187.
- ISBN 978-0-7136-1286-8.
- ISBN 978-0-09-480190-5.
- ^ Bergin, p. 58; Trevor-Roper, p. 66.
- ^ Bergin, p. 57.
- ^ a b Bergin, p. 61.
- ^ Bergin, p. 62.
- ISBN 1432516361.
- ^ Munck, p. 43.
- ^ Bergin, pp. 132–133.
- ^ Wedgwood, p. 189.
- ^ Bergin, p. 130.
- ^ Bergin, p. 133.
- ^ a b c Treasure, p. 4.
- ^ Bergin, p. 135.
- ^ Pardoe, pp. 103–104.
- ^ Collins, p. 45.
- ^ Pardoe, p. 23.
- ^ a b Parker, 1984, p. 130.
- ^ Bergin, p. 99.
- ^ a b Parker, 1984, p. 199.
- ^ a b Carl J. Burckhardt, Richelieu and His Age (1967). Vol. 3, appendix.
- ISBN 978-1-317-87455-3. Archivedfrom the original on 24 July 2020. Retrieved 20 May 2018.
- ^ Lodge & Ketcham, 1903, p. 85.
- ^ Dyer, 1861, p. 525.
- ^ Zagorin, p. 9.
- ^ Wedgwood, p. 188.
- ^ "Richelieu, Armand Jean du Plessis de | Encyclopedia.com". www.encyclopedia.com. Retrieved 15 July 2023.
- ^ Kissinger, p. 59
- ^ Wedgwood, p. 195.
- ^ Collins, p. 48.
- ^ Zagorin, p. 16.
- ^ Zagorin, p. 17.
- ^ a b Zagorin, p. 18.
- ^ Pardoe, p. 176.
- ^ Munck, p. 44.
- ^ Wedgwood, p. 270.
- ^ "Armand Jean du Plessis de Richelieu | Encyclopedia.com". www.encyclopedia.com. Retrieved 15 July 2023.
- ^ Lodge, Sir Richard (1903). The Life of Cardinal Richelieu. A. L. Burt Company. p. 195.
- ^ A. Lloyd Moote, Louis XIII, the Just, pp. 135–136, 178. [full citation needed]
- ^ Moote, pp. 179–183, esp. 182
- ^ Wedgwood, p. 247.
- ^ a b Parker, 1984, p. 219.
- ^ Collins, p. 62.
- ^ Collins, p. 53.
- ^ Munck, p. 48.
- ^ Zagorin, pp. 8–12.
- ^ Amsterdam City Archive
- ^ Wedgwood, p. 452.
- ^ Henry Bertram Hill, Political Testament of Cardinal Richelieu, p. vii, supports general thesis.
- ISBN 978-0-300-03495-0.
- ^ a b Wedgwood, p. 450.
- ^ "Cercle Richelieu Senghor de Paris – Tribune internationale de la francophonie". www.cercle-richelieu-senghor.org. Archived from the original on 30 October 2014. Retrieved 10 September 2014.
- ^ "Le grand atout de la France est d’avoir mis en place des conditions favorisant les établissements stables, grâce aux alliances avec les peuples autochtones." Cercle Richelieu [1] Archived 30 October 2014 at the Wayback Machine
- ^ Kenneth M. Morrison, The Embattled Northeast: The Elusive Ideal of Alliance in Abenaki-Euramerican Relations, 1984, p. 94 [2]
- ^ Roger L. Nichols, Indians in the United States and Canada: A Comparative History, 1999, p. 32 [3] Archived 11 May 2016 at the Wayback Machine
- ^ Acte pour l'établissement de la Compagnie des Cent Associés pour le commerce du Canada, contenant les articles accordés à la dite Compagnie par M. le Cardinal de Richelieu, le 29 avril 1627 [4] Archived 21 August 2016 at the Wayback Machine
- ^ "Statistics for the 1666 Census". Library and Archives Canada. 2006. Archived from the original on 4 September 2015. Retrieved 24 June 2010.
- ^ Perkins, p. 273.
- ^ Phillips, p. 3.
- ^ a b Perkins, p. 195.
- ^ Perkins, p. 198.
- ^ Perkins, p. 191.
- ^ Perkins, p. 200.
- ^ Perkins, p. 204.
- ^ Cabanès, "Le Medecin de Richelieu", pp. 16–43, for a full account of his medical history.
- ^ Treasure, p. 8.
- ^ Lodge, Sir Richard (1903). The Life of Cardinal Richelieu. A. L. Burt Company. p. 322.
- ^ Fontaine de Resbecq (pp. 11–18); Cabanès, "L'Odyssée d'un Crane"; Murphy, 1995.
- PMID 18340911.
- ^ Routledge's Every Boy's Annual. 1877. p. 341.
- ^ Walker, George (1850). Chess and Chess-players: Consisting of Original Stories and Sketches. C.J. Skeet. p. 107.
- ISBN 978-0-8128-2187-1.
- ^ Jacques Gaffrel in Italy and Jean Tileman Stella in Germany – Bonnaffé p. 13.
- ^ Bonnaffé, pp. 4, 12.
- ^ Auchincloss, p. 178.
- ^ Elliot, 1991, p. 30.
- ^ Pitte, p. 33.
- ^ Alexander, 1996, p. 20.
- ^ Bonnaffé :7ff (notes other portrait galleries assembled by Richelieu's contemporaries), pp. 10ff.
- Jean-Auguste Dominique Ingresmade a careful drawing of it.
- ^ "Le petit cabinet de passage pour aller à l'appartement vert" (Bonnaffé :10).
- ^ Bonnaffé :16
- ^ "Louvre Museum". Cartelen.louvre.fr. Archived from the original on 7 June 2011. Retrieved 14 October 2010.
- ^ Collins, p. 1.
- ^ Collins, p. 1 – although Collin does note that this can be exaggerated.
- ^ Phillips, p. 266.
- ^ Kissinger, pp. 62–63
- ^ "Armand-Jean du Plessis, cardinal et duc de Richelieu | French Statesman, Cardinal & Politician | Britannica". www.britannica.com. Retrieved 15 July 2023.
- ^ Archived at Ghostarchive and the Wayback Machine: Chadner (22 December 2006). "Monty Python – Court Scene" – via YouTube.
- ^ Richelieu, Armand Jean du Plessis (1961). Political testament. Internet Archive. Madison : University of Wisconsin Press.
- )
- ^ Richelieu, Armand Jean du Plessis (1823). Mémoires du cardinal de Richelieu, sur le règne de Louis XIII. Oxford University. Paris : Foucault.
- ^ Departement of National Defence, Chief Military Personnel (27 May 2015). "Officer Cadet Division – Faculty and Staff – Royal Military College Saint-Jean". www.cmrsj-rmcsj.forces.gc.ca. Archived from the original on 27 August 2021. Retrieved 27 August 2021.
- ^ Willem. "Richelieu Work". www.trc-leiden.nl. Archived from the original on 14 October 2019. Retrieved 14 October 2019.
Bibliography
- Alexander, Edward Porter. Museums in Motion: an introduction to the history and functions of museums. Lanham: Rowman and Littlefield. (1996)
- Auchincloss, Louis. Richelieu. Viking Press. (1972)
- Bergin, Joseph. The Rise of Richelieu. Manchester: Manchester University Press. (1997)
- Blanchard, Jean-Vincent. Eminence: Cardinal Richelieu and the Rise of France (Walker & Company; 2011) 309 pages; a biography
- Bonnaffé, Edmond. Recherches sur les collections des Richelieu. Plon. (1883) (French)
- Cabanès, Augustin. "Le Médecin de Richelieu – La Maladie du Cardinal" and "L'Odyssée d'un Crane – La Tête du Cardinal", Le Cabinet Secret de l'Histoire, 4e serie. Paris: Dorbon Ainé. (1905) (French)
- Collins, James B. The State in Early Modern France. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. (1995)
- Dyer, Thomas Henry. The history of modern Europe from the fall of Constantinople: in 1453, to the war in the Crimea, in 1857. J. Murray. (1861)
- Elliott, J. H. Richelieu and Olivares. Cambridge: Canto Press. (1991)
- Fontaine de Resbecq, Eugène de. Les Tombeaux des Richelieu à la Sorbonne, par un membre de la Société d'archéologie de Seine-et-Marne. Paris: Ernest Thorin. (1867) (French)
- Lodge, Sir Richard, and Ketcham, Henry. The life of Cardinal Richelieu Archived 31 March 2020 at the Wayback Machine. A.L. Burt. (1903)
- Munck, Thomas. Seventeenth Century Europe, 1598–1700. London: Macmillan. (1990)
- Pardoe, Julia. The Life of Marie de Medici, volume 3. Colburn (1852); BiblioBazaar reprint (2006)
- Parker, Geoffrey. Europe in Crisis, 1598–1648. London: Fontana. (1984)
- Perkins, James Breck. Richelieu and the Growth of French Power. Ayer Publishing. (1971)
- Phillips, Henry. Church and Culture in Seventeenth Century France. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. (1997)
- Pitte, Jean-Robert. La Sorbonne au service des humanités: 750 ans de création et de transmission du savoir, 1257–2007. Paris: Presses Paris Sorbonne. (2007) (French)
- Treasure, Geoffrey. Richelieu and Mazarin. London: Routledge. (1998)
- Trevor-Roper, Hugh Redwald. Europe's physician: the various life of Sir Theodore de Mayerne. Yale: Yale University Press. (2006) ISBN 978-0-300-11263-4
- Wedgwood, C. V. The Thirty Years' War. London: Methuen. (1981)
- Zagorin, Perez. Rebels and Rulers, 1500–1660. Volume II: Provincial rebellion: Revolutionary civil wars, 1560–1660. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. (1992)
Further reading
- Belloc, Hilaire (1929). Richelieu: A Study. London: J. B. Lippincott.
- Burckhardt, Carl J. (1967). Richelieu and His Age (3 volumes). trans. Bernard Hoy. New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich.
- Church, William F. (1972). Richelieu and Reason of State. Princeton: Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-0691051994.
- Kissinger, Henry (1997). Diplomacy.
- Levi, Anthony (2000). Cardinal Richelieu and the Making of France. New York: Carroll and Graf.
- Lodge, Sir Richard (1896). Richelieu. London: Macmillan.
- Murphy, Edwin (1995). After the Funeral: The Posthumous Adventures of Famous Corpses. New York: Barnes and Noble Books.
- O'Connell, D.P. (1968). Richelieu. New York: The World Publishing Company.
- Rehman, Iskander. 2019. "Raison d’Etat: Richelieu’s Grand Strategy During the Thirty Years’ War." Texas National Security Review.
- Richelieu, Armand Jean du Plessis, Cardinal et Duc de (1964). The Political Testament of Cardinal Richelieu. trans. Henry Bertram Hill. Madison: University of Wisconsin Press.
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: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
External links
- Damayanov, Orlin. (1996). "The Political Career and Personal Qualities of Richelieu."
- Goyau, Georges. (1912). "Armand-Jean du Plessis, Duke de Richelieu." The Catholic Encyclopedia, Volume XIII. New York: Robert Appleton Company
- Schiller, Friedrich von. (1793). The History of the Thirty Years' War. Translated by A. J. W. Morrison.
- Cardinal Richelieu public domain audiobook at LibriVox