Carians
The Carians (.
Historical accounts
Karkisa
It is not clear when the Carians enter into history. The definition is dependent on corresponding Caria and the Carians to the "Karkiya" or "Karkisa" mentioned in the
The relationship between the
Homer
The Carians next appear in records of the early centuries of the first millennium BC; Homer's writing about the golden armour or ornaments of the Carian captain Nastes, the brother of Amphimachus and son of Nomion,[4] reflects the reputation of Carian wealth that may have preceded the Greek Dark Ages and thus recalled in oral tradition.
Old Testament
In some translations of
Greek and Roman Antiquity
The Greek historian
According to Thucydides, it was largely the Carians who settled the Cyclades prior to the Minoans. The Middle Bronze Age (MMI–MMII) expansion of the Minoans into this region seems to have come at their expense. Intending to secure revenue in the Cyclades, Minos of Knossos established a navy with which he established his first colonies by taking control of the Hellenic sea and ruling over the Cyclades. In doing so, Minos expelled the Carians, many of which had turned to piracy as a way of life. During the Athenian purification of Delos,[clarification needed] all graves were exhumed and it was found that more than half were Carians (identified by the style of arms and the method of interment).[7]
According to Strabo, Carians, of all the "barbarians", had a particular tendency to intermingle with the Greeks,
"This was particularly the case with the Carians, for, although the other peoples were not yet having very much intercourse with the Greeks nor even trying to live in Hellenic fashion or to learn our language ... yet the Carians roamed throughout the whole of Greece serving on expeditions for pay. ... and when they were driven thence [from the islands] into Asia, even here they were unable to live apart from the Greeks, I mean when the Ionians and Dorians later crossed over to Asia." (Strabo 14.2.28)
Indeed, the term barbarian was coined by Homer in reference to the Carians speaking an unintelligible language.[8]
Greek mythology
According to Herodotus, the Carians were named after an eponymous
Classical Greeks would often claim that part of Caria to the north was originally colonized by Ionian Greeks before the Dorians.
The Greek goddess Hecate possibly originated among the Carians.[10] Indeed, most theophoric names invoking Hecate, such as Hecataeus or Hecatomnus, the father of Mausolus, are attested in Caria.[11]
Carians and Leleges
The Carians were often linked by Greek writers to the
Language
The Carian language belongs to the Luwic group of the
An important evidence of the Carians' own belief in their blood ties and cultural affinity with the Lydians and Mysians is the admittance, apart from theirs, exclusively of
Religion
One of the Carian ritual centers was
It is possible that the goddess Hecate, the patron of pathways and crossroads, originated among the Carians.[16] Herodotus calls her Athena and says that her priestess would grow a beard when disaster pended.[17]
On
There is at least one named priestess known to us from this region, Carminia Ammia who was priestess of Thea Maeter Adrastos and of Aphrodite.
Archaeology
Throughout the 1950s,
During the 1970s, further archaeological excavations in Caria revealed Mycenean buildings at
As for the assumption that the Carians descended from Neolithic settlers, this is contradicted by the fact that Neolithic Caria was essentially desolate.[24][failed verification] Though a very small Neolithic population may have existed in Caria,[25] the people known as "Carians" may in fact have been of Aegean origin that settled in southwestern Anatolia during the second millennium BC.[26]
See also
- Caria
- Carian language
- Carian script
- Mysians
- Lydians
- Lycians
References
Citations
- ^ Achaemenid soldiers
- Perseus Project
- ^ Lajara 2007, p. 1.
- ^ Homer. Iliad, 2.858–2.875.
- ^ Boardman 1991, p. 663.
- ^ Plutarch. Parallel Lives, "Artaxerxes".
- ^ Thucydides. History of the Peloponnesian War, 1.4–1.8.
- ^ Tuplin, C, Greek Racism? Observations on the Character and Limits of Greek Ethnic Prejudice' in G.R. Tsetskhladze (ed.), 'Ancient Greeks East and West' ' (Leiden-Boston-Cologne) 1999, 47-75
- ^ a b Herodotus. Histories, 1.171.
- ISBN 0-631-15624-0.
- ^ Theodor Kraus, Hekate: Studien zu Wesen u. Bilde der Göttin in Kleinasien u. Griechenland (Heidelberg) 1960
- ^ Strabo. Geographica, 7.321 and 13.611.
- ^ Athenaeus. The Deipnosophists, 6.271.
- ^ Melchert 2003, pp. 175–177.
- ^ Yakubovich 2010, pp. 86–96.
- ^ Burkert & Raffan 1987, p. 171.
- ^ Herodotus. Histories, 8.104.
- ^ Bass 1963, p. 356 [Footnote]: "G. E. Bean and J. M. Cook, BSA 47 (1952) 171ff; BSA 50 (1955) 85ff; BSA 52 (1957) 58ff."
- ^ Cook 1959–1960, p. 50 under Caria: "Except in the extreme east, where it is approached from the Maeander valley, Caria seems to be almost totally barren of prehistoric remains; considering the archaeological reconnaissances that have recently been carried out here, this lacuna is noteworthy. Finds of third-millennium date are confined to a very few points on or near the Aegean coast, with the curious exception of one find-spot which seems to be near Yatağan at the head of the Marsyas valley. No second-millennium remains are known apart from the Mycenaean at Miletus, the Submycenaean at Asarlik (Termera) opposite Cos, and the reports of Mycenaean from the vicinity of Mylasa. It is now asserted by some scholars that the Carians were a people, perhaps Indo-European, who inhabited the interior of Anatolia and only descended to Caria and the Aegean at the end of the Bronze Age; but this is far from harmonising with the Greek tradition about them, and the writer for one finds it difficult to explain the Mycenaean in Caria (and perhaps adjacent islands) as being anything other than Carian. Our difficulty with early Caria is that we have no means as yet of distinguishing Carians; archaeologically their culture appears as little more than a reflection of contemporary Greek culture. Excavation of early Carian settlements is urgently needed."
- ^ Mitchell & McNicoll 1978–1979, p. 63 under Mycenaeans in Asia Minor: "At Iasus Mycenaean buildings, approximately dated by the presence of LH IIIa ware, have been found below the protogeometric cemetery. Below this again two 'Minoan' levels are reported, the earlier containing local imitations of MM II-LM I ware, the later imported pieces of the Second Palace Period (AJA [1973], 177-8). Middle and Late Minoan ware has also occurred at Cnidus (AJA [1978], 321)."
- ^ Mitchell & McNicoll 1978–1979, p. 79 under Caria: "There has been much archaeological activity in Caria, and there is little doubt that the discoveries made in the last decade, when fully published, will provoke a reappraisal of Carian history at all periods. Mycenaean discoveries at Iasus and elsewhere have already been mentioned (p. 63). Protogeometric and geometric finds have also been abundant. On the coast a tomb at Dirmil produced eighth century B.C. pottery (C. Özgünel, Belleten 40 [1976], 3 ff.) and there is geometric pottery from the settlement at Iasus, as well as protogeometric ware of a distinct Carian style from the cemetery beneath the Roman agora (ASAA [1969/70], 464 ff.). Inland, at Beçin, the fortified site which was presumably the precursor of Mylasa, a geometric cemetery has been excavated by A. Akarca (Belleten xxxv [1971], 1-52). These finds and the Carian geometric style are discussed by J. N. Coldstream, Geometric Greece (1977), 258-60. Since then a group of geometric kotylai from Euromus has been published by C. Özgünel, AA (1977), 8-13."
- ^ Mitchell & McNicoll 1978–1979, p. 79 under Caria: "Carians also made their mark abroad, and recent work sheds light on their presence in Sardis (J. G. Pedley, JHS [1974], 96-9), Rhodes (P. M. Fraser, Rhodian Funerary Monuments [1977], 5, a chamber-tomb of Carian type known as the Ptolemaion, probably belonging to the period of Carian hegemony in the island for which see id., BSA [1972], 122-3), and above all in Egypt as mercenaries in the Pharaonic armies (O. Masson, Bull. Soc. Fr. d'Egyptologie lvi [1969], 25-36; A. B. Lloyd, JEA [1978], 107-10)."
- ^ Bass 1963, p. 356: "J. M. Cook, after his thorough and exhaustive survey of the area with G. Bean, doubts that the Carians occupied Caria during the second millennium B.C. for, with the exception of Miletus, and Mylasa with its scanty Mycenaean remains, "the coast appears a blank on the map...and the interior of Caria seems to have been virtually uninhabited throughout prehistoric times. Paton and Myres had previously suggested that the lack of Mycenaean remains in Caria, within sight of so many islands which were occupied by Mycenaeans, must have been due to some unknown mainland opposition."
- ^ Drews 2001, p. 260: "That Neolithic Caria was uninhabited is quite incredible. Hacilar directly east of Caria, was a Neolithic settlement already in 8000 B.C."
- ^ Drews 2001, p. 260: "In short, the population of Neolithic Caria may have been very small..."
- ^ Bienkowski & Millard 2000, pp. 65–66: "Caria, Carians A region of south-west Turkey, south of *Lydia, Caria was first settled in the *Neolithic but became a distinctive culture only in the first millennium BC. Carians may originally have been of *Aegean origin and settled in the area in the second millennium BC. The earlier first-millennium BC communities seem to have been independent, mainly *temple centres for native deities, and Caria came under Lydian control. There was considerable *Hellenistic influence, and already the *pottery of the eighth and seventh centuries BC had a geometric tradition similar to that of east Greece. In 546 BC, Caria was brought under *Persian rule and placed under the Lydian satrapy. By the fourth century BC, its culture was similar to that of a *Greek city-state. The Carian *language is related to Luwian (*Hittite) and is known from inscriptions written in a local form of the Greek *alphabet discovered in Caria and others in Egypt by Carian mercenaries."
Sources
- Bass, George F. (Oct 1963). "Mycenaean and Protogeometric Tombs in the Halicarnassus Peninsula". S2CID 192928472.
- Bean, George Ewart (1989). Turkey beyond the Meander. London: John Murray Publishers Ltd. ISBN 0-7195-4663-X.
- Bienkowski, Piotr; Millard, Alan Ralph (2000). Dictionary of the Ancient Near East. Philadelphia, Pennsylvania: University of Pennsylvania Press. ISBN 0-8122-3557-6.
- Boardman, John (1991). The Cambridge Ancient History Part 2: The Assyrian and Babylonian Empires and Other States of the Near East, from the Eighth to the Sixth Centuries BC. Cambridge, United Kingdom: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-22717-8.
- Burkert, Walter; Raffan, John (1987). Greek Religion: Archaic and Classical. Oxford, United Kingdom: Blackwell Publishing Ltd. ISBN 0-631-15624-0.
- Cook, J. M. (1959–1960). "Greek Archaeology in Western Asia Minor". Archaeological Reports. 6: 27–57. S2CID 246046881.
- ISBN 0-941694-77-1.
- Lajara, Ignacio-Javier Adiego (2007). The Carian Language. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill. ISBN 978-90-04-15281-6.
- Melchert, H. Craig (2003). The Luwians. Leiden, The Netherlands: BRILL. ]
- Mitchell, S.; McNicoll, A. W. (1978–1979). "Archaeology in Western and Southern Asia Minor 1971-78". Archaeological Reports. 25: 59–90. S2CID 163403864.
- Yakubovich, Ilya S. (2010). Sociolinguistics of the Luvian Language. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill. ISBN 978-90-04-17791-8.
Further reading
- Benda-Weber, Isabella (2005). Lykier und Karer. Zwei autochthone Ethnien Kleinasiens zwischen Orient und Okzident. Bonn: Dr. Rudolf Habelt.
- Urso, Gianpaolo (2007). "Les Cariens ou la mauvaise conscience du Barbare (Alain Bresson, pp. 209-228)". Tra Oriente e Occidente: Indigeni, Greci e Romani in Asia Minore (PDF). Pisa, Italy: Edizione ETS. ISBN 978-88-467-1826-6.
- Des Courtils, Jacques (2009). "The Findings From A Late Geometric Period Grave Uncovered At Beçin (Yasemin Polat, pp. 133-150)". Anatolia Antiqua XVII. Librairie d'Amérique et d'Orient Adrien Misonneuve, Jean Maisonneuve Successeur. ISBN 978-2-906053-96-0.
External links
- Livius – Caria (Jona Lendering) Archived 2015-01-01 at the Wayback Machine