Carl Linnaeus

Carl Linnaeus
Hammarby, Sweden
Resting place	Uppsala Cathedral 59°51′29″N 17°38′00″E / 59.85806°N 17.63333°E / 59.85806; 17.63333
Alma mater	Lund University Uppsala University University of Harderwijk
Known for	Binomial nomenclature Linnaean taxonomy Linnaeus's flower clock
Spouse	Sara Elisabeth Moræa ​ ​ (m. 1739)​
Children	7
Awards	ForMemRS (1753)
Scientific career
Fields	Biology Botany Zoology
Institutions	Uppsala University
Thesis	Dissertatio medica inauguralis in qua exhibetur hypothesis nova de febrium intermittentium causa (1735)
Notable students	Peter Ascanius Johann Friedrich Gmelin
Author abbrev. (botany)	L.
Author abbrev. (zoology)	Linnaeus
Signature

Carl Linnaeus^[a] (23 May 1707^{[note 1]} – 10 January 1778), also known after ennoblement in 1761 as Carl von Linné,^[3][b] was a Swedish biologist and physician who formalised binomial nomenclature, the modern system of naming organisms. He is known as the "father of modern taxonomy".^[4] Many of his writings were in Latin; his name is rendered in Latin as Carolus Linnæus and, after his 1761 ennoblement, as Carolus a Linné.

Linnaeus was the son of a curate^[5] and was born in Råshult, in the countryside of Småland, southern Sweden. He received most of his higher education at Uppsala University and began giving lectures in botany there in 1730. He lived abroad between 1735 and 1738, where he studied and also published the first edition of his Systema Naturae in the Netherlands. He then returned to Sweden where he became professor of medicine and botany at Uppsala. In the 1740s, he was sent on several journeys through Sweden to find and classify plants and animals. In the 1750s and 1760s, he continued to collect and classify animals, plants, and minerals, while publishing several volumes. By the time of his death in 1778, he was one of the most acclaimed scientists in Europe.

Philosopher

Linnaeus was born in the village of Råshult in Småland, Sweden, on 23 May 1707. He was the first child of Nicolaus (Nils) Ingemarsson (who later adopted the family name Linnaeus) and Christina Brodersonia. His siblings were Anna Maria Linnæa, Sofia Juliana Linnæa, Samuel Linnæus (who would eventually succeed their father as rector of Stenbrohult and write a manual on beekeeping),^[12][13][14] and Emerentia Linnæa.^[15] His father taught him Latin as a small child.^[16]

One of a long line of peasants and priests, Nils was an amateur

A year after Linnaeus's birth, his grandfather Samuel Brodersonius died, and his father Nils became the rector of Stenbrohult. The family moved into the rectory from the curate's house.^[18][19]

Even in his early years, Linnaeus seemed to have a liking for plants, flowers in particular. Whenever he was upset, he was given a flower, which immediately calmed him. Nils spent much time in his garden and often showed flowers to Linnaeus and told him their names. Soon Linnaeus was given his own patch of earth where he could grow plants.^[20]

Carl's father was the first in his ancestry to adopt a permanent surname. Before that, ancestors had used the

Linnaeus's father began teaching him basic Latin, religion, and geography at an early age.^[22] When Linnaeus was seven, Nils decided to hire a tutor for him. The parents picked Johan Telander, a son of a local yeoman. Linnaeus did not like him, writing in his autobiography that Telander "was better calculated to extinguish a child's talents than develop them".^[23]

Two years after his tutoring had begun, he was sent to the Lower

Linnaeus entered the Växjö Katedralskola in 1724, where he studied mainly Greek, Hebrew, theology and mathematics, a curriculum designed for boys preparing for the priesthood.^[29][30] In the last year at the gymnasium, Linnaeus's father visited to ask the professors how his son's studies were progressing; to his dismay, most said that the boy would never become a scholar. Rothman believed otherwise, suggesting Linnaeus could have a future in medicine. The doctor offered to have Linnaeus live with his family in Växjö and to teach him physiology and botany. Nils accepted this offer.^[31][32]

Rothman showed Linnaeus that botany was a serious subject. He taught Linnaeus to classify plants according to

Professor Kilian Stobæus, natural scientist, physician and historian, offered Linnaeus tutoring and lodging, as well as the use of his library, which included many books about botany. He also gave the student free admission to his lectures.^[35][36] In his spare time, Linnaeus explored the flora of Skåne, together with students sharing the same interests.^[37]

In August 1728, Linnaeus decided to attend Uppsala University on the advice of Rothman, who believed it would be a better choice if Linnaeus wanted to study both medicine and botany. Rothman based this recommendation on the two professors who taught at the medical faculty at Uppsala: Olof Rudbeck the Younger and Lars Roberg. Although Rudbeck and Roberg had undoubtedly been good professors, by then they were older and not so interested in teaching. Rudbeck no longer gave public lectures, and had others stand in for him. The botany, zoology, pharmacology and anatomy lectures were not in their best state.^[38] In Uppsala, Linnaeus met a new benefactor, Olof Celsius, who was a professor of theology and an amateur botanist.^[39] He received Linnaeus into his home and allowed him use of his library, which was one of the richest botanical libraries in Sweden.^[40]

In 1729, Linnaeus wrote a thesis, Praeludia Sponsaliorum Plantarum on

Rudbeck's former assistant, Nils Rosén, returned to the University in March 1731 with a degree in medicine. Rosén started giving anatomy lectures and tried to take over Linnaeus's botany lectures, but Rudbeck prevented that. Until December, Rosén gave Linnaeus private tutoring in medicine. In December, Linnaeus had a "disagreement" with Rudbeck's wife and had to move out of his mentor's house; his relationship with Rudbeck did not appear to suffer. That Christmas, Linnaeus returned home to Stenbrohult to visit his parents for the first time in about three years. His mother had disapproved of his failing to become a priest, but she was pleased to learn he was teaching at the University.^[43][44]

During a visit with his parents, Linnaeus told them about his plan to travel to

Linnaeus travelled clockwise around the coast of the Gulf of Bothnia, making major inland incursions from Umeå, Luleå and Tornio. He returned from his six-month-long, over 2,000 kilometres (1,200 mi) expedition in October, having gathered and observed many plants, birds and rocks.^[51][52][53] Although Lapland was a region with limited biodiversity, Linnaeus described about 100 previously unidentified plants. These became the basis of his book Flora Lapponica.^[54][55] However, on the expedition to Lapland, Linnaeus used Latin names to describe organisms because he had not yet developed the binomial system.^[47]

In Flora Lapponica Linnaeus's ideas about

It was during this expedition that Linnaeus had a flash of insight regarding the classification of mammals. Upon observing the lower jawbone of a horse at the side of a road he was travelling, Linnaeus remarked: "If I only knew how many teeth and of what kind every animal had, how many teats and where they were placed, I should perhaps be able to work out a perfectly natural system for the arrangement of all quadrupeds."^[57]

In 1734, Linnaeus led a small group of students to Dalarna. Funded by the Governor of Dalarna, the expedition was to catalogue known natural resources and discover new ones, but also to gather intelligence on Norwegian mining activities at Røros.^[53]

His relations with Nils Rosén having worsened, Linnaeus accepted an invitation from Claes Sohlberg, son of a mining inspector, to spend the Christmas holiday in Falun, where Linnaeus was permitted to visit the mines.^[58]

In April 1735, at the suggestion of Sohlberg's father, Linnaeus and Sohlberg set out for the Dutch Republic, where Linnaeus intended to study medicine at the University of Harderwijk^[59] while tutoring Sohlberg in exchange for an annual salary. At the time, it was common for Swedes to pursue doctoral degrees in the Netherlands, then a highly revered place to study natural history.^[60]

On the way, the pair stopped in

Within two weeks he had completed his oral and practical examinations and was awarded a doctoral degree.[61]^[63]

That summer Linnaeus reunited with Peter Artedi, a friend from Uppsala with whom he had once made a pact that should either of the two predecease the other, the survivor would finish the decedent's work. Ten weeks later, Artedi drowned in the canals of Amsterdam, leaving behind an unfinished manuscript on the classification of fish.^[66][67]

One of the first scientists Linnaeus met in the Netherlands was Johan Frederik Gronovius, to whom Linnaeus showed one of the several manuscripts he had brought with him from Sweden. The manuscript described a new system for classifying plants. When Gronovius saw it, he was very impressed, and offered to help pay for the printing. With an additional monetary contribution by the Scottish doctor Isaac Lawson, the manuscript was published as Systema Naturae (1735).^[68][69]

Linnaeus became acquainted with one of the most respected physicians and botanists in the Netherlands, Herman Boerhaave, who tried to convince Linnaeus to make a career there. Boerhaave offered him a journey to South Africa and America, but Linnaeus declined, stating he would not stand the heat. Instead, Boerhaave convinced Linnaeus that he should visit the botanist Johannes Burman. After his visit, Burman, impressed with his guest's knowledge, decided Linnaeus should stay with him during the winter. During his stay, Linnaeus helped Burman with his Thesaurus Zeylanicus. Burman also helped Linnaeus with the books on which he was working: Fundamenta Botanica and Bibliotheca Botanica.^[70]

Leaf forms from Hortus Cliffortianus

In August 1735, during Linnaeus's stay with Burman, he met George Clifford III, a director of the Dutch East India Company and the owner of a rich botanical garden at the estate of Hartekamp in Heemstede. Clifford was very impressed with Linnaeus's ability to classify plants, and invited him to become his physician and superintendent of his garden. Linnaeus had already agreed to stay with Burman over the winter, and could thus not accept immediately. However, Clifford offered to compensate Burman by offering him a copy of Sir Hans Sloane's Natural History of Jamaica, a rare book, if he let Linnaeus stay with him, and Burman accepted.^[71][72] On 24 September 1735, Linnaeus moved to Hartekamp to become personal physician to Clifford, and curator of Clifford's herbarium. He was paid 1,000 florins a year, with free board and lodging. Though the agreement was only for a winter of that year, Linnaeus practically stayed there until 1738.^[73] It was here that he wrote a book Hortus Cliffortianus, in the preface of which he described his experience as "the happiest time of my life". (A portion of Hartekamp was declared as public garden in April 1956 by the Heemstede local authority, and was named "Linnaeushof".^[74] It eventually became, as it is claimed, the biggest playground in Europe.^[75])

In July 1736, Linnaeus travelled to England, at Clifford's expense.^[76] He went to London to visit Sir Hans Sloane, a collector of natural history, and to see his cabinet,^[77] as well as to visit the Chelsea Physic Garden and its keeper, Philip Miller. He taught Miller about his new system of subdividing plants, as described in Systema Naturae. At first, Miller was reluctant to use the new binomial nomenclature, preferring instead the classifications of Joseph Pitton de Tournefort and John Ray. Nevertheless, Linnaeus applauded Miller's Gardeners Dictionary.^[78] The conservative Miller actually retained in his dictionary a number of pre-Linnaean binomial signifiers discarded by Linnaeus but which have been retained by modern botanists. He only fully changed to the Linnaean system in the edition of The Gardeners Dictionary of 1768. Miller ultimately was impressed, and from then on started to arrange the garden according to Linnaeus's system.^[79]

Linnaeus also travelled to Oxford University to visit the botanist Johann Jacob Dillenius. He failed to make Dillenius publicly fully accept his new classification system, though the two men remained in correspondence for many years afterwards. Linnaeus dedicated his Critica Botanica to him, as "opus botanicum quo absolutius mundus non-vidit". Linnaeus would later name a genus of tropical tree Dillenia in his honour. He then returned to Hartekamp, bringing with him many specimens of rare plants.^[80] The next year, 1737, he published Genera Plantarum, in which he described 935 genera of plants, and shortly thereafter he supplemented it with Corollarium Generum Plantarum, with another sixty (sexaginta) genera.^[81]

His work at Hartekamp led to another book, Hortus Cliffortianus, a catalogue of the botanical holdings in the herbarium and botanical garden of Hartekamp. He wrote it in nine months (completed in July 1737), but it was not published until 1738.^[70] It contains the first use of the name Nepenthes, which Linnaeus used to describe a genus of pitcher plants.^{[82][note 4]}

Linnaeus stayed with Clifford at Hartekamp until 18 October 1737 (new style), when he left the house to return to Sweden. Illness and the kindness of Dutch friends obliged him to stay some months longer in Holland. In May 1738, he set out for Sweden again. On the way home, he stayed in Paris for about a month, visiting botanists such as Antoine de Jussieu. After his return, Linnaeus never again left Sweden.^[83][84]

When Linnaeus returned to Sweden on 28 June 1738, he went to

Because his finances had improved and were now sufficient to support a family, he received permission to marry his fiancée, Sara Elisabeth Moræa. Their wedding was held 26 June 1739. Seventeen months later, Sara gave birth to their first son, Carl. Two years later, a daughter, Elisabeth Christina, was born, and the subsequent year Sara gave birth to Sara Magdalena, who died when 15 days old. Sara and Linnaeus would later have four other children: Lovisa, Sara Christina, Johannes and Sophia.^[85][90]

In May 1741, Linnaeus was appointed Professor of Medicine at Uppsala University, first with responsibility for medicine-related matters. Soon, he changed place with the other Professor of Medicine, Nils Rosén, and thus was responsible for the Botanical Garden (which he would thoroughly reconstruct and expand), botany and natural history, instead. In October that same year, his wife and nine-month-old son followed him to live in Uppsala.^[91]

Ten days after he was appointed professor, he undertook an expedition to the island provinces of Öland and Gotland with six students from the university to look for plants useful in medicine. They stayed on Öland until 21 June, then sailed to Visby in Gotland. Linnaeus and the students stayed on Gotland for about a month, and then returned to Uppsala. During this expedition, they found 100 previously unrecorded plants. The observations from the expedition were later published in Öländska och Gothländska Resa, written in Swedish. Like Flora Lapponica, it contained both zoological and botanical observations, as well as observations concerning the culture in Öland and Gotland.^[92][93]

During the summer of 1745, Linnaeus published two more books: Flora Suecica and Fauna Suecica. Flora Suecica was a strictly botanical book, while Fauna Suecica was zoological.^[85][94] Anders Celsius had created the temperature scale named after him in 1742. Celsius's scale was originally inverted compared to the way it is used today, with water boiling at 0 °C and freezing at 100 °C. Linnaeus was the one who inverted the scale to its present usage, in 1745.^[95]

In the summer of 1746, Linnaeus was once again commissioned by the Government to carry out an expedition, this time to the Swedish province of Västergötland. He set out from Uppsala on 12 June and returned on 11 August. On the expedition his primary companion was Erik Gustaf Lidbeck, a student who had accompanied him on his previous journey. Linnaeus described his findings from the expedition in the book Wästgöta-Resa, published the next year.^[92][96] After he returned from the journey, the Government decided Linnaeus should take on another expedition to the southernmost province Scania. This journey was postponed, as Linnaeus felt too busy.^[85]

In 1747, Linnaeus was given the title archiater, or chief physician, by the Swedish king Adolf Frederick—a mark of great respect.^[97] The same year he was elected member of the Academy of Sciences in Berlin.^[98]

In the spring of 1749, Linnaeus could finally journey to

In 1750, Linnaeus became rector of Uppsala University, starting a period where natural sciences were esteemed.^[85] Perhaps the most important contribution he made during his time at Uppsala was to teach; many of his students travelled to various places in the world to collect botanical samples. Linnaeus called the best of these students his "apostles".^[102] His lectures were normally very popular and were often held in the Botanical Garden. He tried to teach the students to think for themselves and not trust anybody, not even him. Even more popular than the lectures were the botanical excursions made every Saturday during summer, where Linnaeus and his students explored the flora and fauna in the vicinity of Uppsala.^[103]

Linnaeus published Philosophia Botanica in 1751.^[104] The book contained a complete survey of the taxonomy system he had been using in his earlier works. It also contained information of how to keep a journal on travels and how to maintain a botanical garden.^[105]

During Linnaeus's time it was normal for upper class women to have wet nurses for their babies. Linnaeus joined an ongoing campaign to end this practice in Sweden and promote breast-feeding by mothers. In 1752 Linnaeus published a thesis along with Frederick Lindberg, a physician student,^[106] based on their experiences.^[107] In the tradition of the period, this dissertation was essentially an idea of the presiding reviewer (prases) expounded upon by the student. Linnaeus's dissertation was translated into French by J. E. Gilibert in 1770 as La Nourrice marâtre, ou Dissertation sur les suites funestes du nourrisage mercénaire. Linnaeus suggested that children might absorb the personality of their wet nurse through the milk. He admired the child care practices of the Lapps^[108] and pointed out how healthy their babies were compared to those of Europeans who employed wet nurses. He compared the behaviour of wild animals and pointed out how none of them denied their newborns their breastmilk.^[108] It is thought that his activism played a role in his choice of the term Mammalia for the class of organisms.^[109]

Linnaeus published Species Plantarum, the work which is now internationally accepted as the starting point of modern botanical nomenclature, in 1753.^[110] The first volume was issued on 24 May, the second volume followed on 16 August of the same year.^{[note 5][112]} The book contained 1,200 pages and was published in two volumes; it described over 7,300 species.^[113][114] The same year the king dubbed him knight of the Order of the Polar Star, the first civilian in Sweden to become a knight in this order. He was then seldom seen not wearing the order's insignia.^[115]

Linnaeus felt Uppsala was too noisy and unhealthy, so he bought two farms in 1758: Hammarby and Sävja. The next year, he bought a neighbouring farm, Edeby. He spent the summers with his family at Hammarby; initially it only had a small one-storey house, but in 1762 a new, larger main building was added.^[101][116] In Hammarby, Linnaeus made a garden where he could grow plants that could not be grown in the Botanical Garden in Uppsala. He began constructing a museum on a hill behind Hammarby in 1766, where he moved his library and collection of plants. A fire that destroyed about one third of Uppsala and had threatened his residence there necessitated the move.^[117]

Since the initial release of Systema Naturae in 1735, the book had been expanded and reprinted several times; the

Linnaeus was relieved of his duties in the Royal Swedish Academy of Science in 1763, but continued his work there as usual for more than ten years after.[85] In 1769 he was elected to the American Philosophical Society for his work.^[128] He stepped down as rector at Uppsala University in December 1772, mostly due to his declining health.^[84][129]

Linnaeus's last years were troubled by illness. He had had a disease called the Uppsala fever in 1764, but survived due to the care of Rosén. He developed sciatica in 1773, and the next year, he had a stroke which partially paralysed him.^[130] He had a second stroke in 1776, losing the use of his right side and leaving him bereft of his memory; while still able to admire his own writings, he could not recognise himself as their author.^[131][132]

In December 1777, he had another stroke which greatly weakened him, and eventually led to his death on 10 January 1778 in Hammarby.^[133][129] Despite his desire to be buried in Hammarby, he was buried in Uppsala Cathedral on 22 January.^[134][135]

His library and collections were left to his widow Sara and their children. Joseph Banks, an eminent botanist, wished to purchase the collection, but his son Carl refused the offer and instead moved the collection to Uppsala. In 1783 Carl died and Sara inherited the collection, having outlived both her husband and son. She tried to sell it to Banks, but he was no longer interested; instead an acquaintance of his agreed to buy the collection. The acquaintance was a 24-year-old medical student, James Edward Smith, who bought the whole collection: 14,000 plants, 3,198 insects, 1,564 shells, about 3,000 letters and 1,600 books. Smith founded the Linnean Society of London five years later.^[135][136]

The von Linné name ended with his son Carl, who never married.^[7] His other son, Johannes, had died aged 3.^[137] There are over two hundred descendants of Linnaeus through two of his daughters.^[7]

During Linnaeus's time as Professor and Rector of Uppsala University, he taught many devoted students, 17 of whom he called "apostles". They were the most promising, most committed students, and all of them made botanical expeditions to various places in the world, often with his help. The amount of this help varied; sometimes he used his influence as Rector to grant his apostles a scholarship or a place on an expedition.^[138] To most of the apostles he gave instructions of what to look for on their journeys. Abroad, the apostles collected and organised new plants, animals and minerals according to Linnaeus's system. Most of them also gave some of their collection to Linnaeus when their journey was finished.^[139] Thanks to these students, the Linnaean system of taxonomy spread through the world without Linnaeus ever having to travel outside Sweden after his return from Holland.^[140] The British botanist William T. Stearn notes, without Linnaeus's new system, it would not have been possible for the apostles to collect and organise so many new specimens.^[141] Many of the apostles died during their expeditions.

Christopher Tärnström, the first apostle and a 43-year-old pastor with a wife and children, made his journey in 1746. He boarded a

Two years after Tärnström's expedition, Finnish-born Pehr Kalm set out as the second apostle to North America. There he spent two-and-a-half years studying the flora and fauna of Pennsylvania, New York, New Jersey and Canada. Linnaeus was overjoyed when Kalm returned, bringing back with him many pressed flowers and seeds. At least 90 of the 700 North American species described in Species Plantarum had been brought back by Kalm.^[143]

Perhaps the most famous and successful apostle was Carl Peter Thunberg, who embarked on a nine-year expedition in 1770. He stayed in South Africa for three years, then travelled to Japan. All foreigners in Japan were forced to stay on the island of Dejima outside Nagasaki, so it was thus hard for Thunberg to study the flora. He did, however, manage to persuade some of the translators to bring him different plants, and he also found plants in the gardens of Dejima. He returned to Sweden in 1779, one year after Linnaeus's death.^[147]

The first edition of Systema Naturae was printed in the Netherlands in 1735. It was a twelve-page work.^[148] By the time it reached its 10th edition in 1758, it classified 4,400 species of animals and 7,700 species of plants. People from all over the world sent their specimens to Linnaeus to be included. By the time he started work on the 12th edition, Linnaeus needed a new invention—the index card—to track classifications.^[149]

In Systema Naturae, the unwieldy names mostly used at the time, such as "Physalis annua ramosissima, ramis angulosis glabris, foliis dentato-serratis", were supplemented with concise and now familiar "binomials", composed of the generic name, followed by a specific epithet—in the case given, Physalis angulata. These binomials could serve as a label to refer to the species. Higher taxa were constructed and arranged in a simple and orderly manner. Although the system, now known as binomial nomenclature, was partially developed by the Bauhin brothers (see Gaspard Bauhin and Johann Bauhin) almost 200 years earlier,^[150] Linnaeus was the first to use it consistently throughout the work, including in monospecific genera, and may be said to have popularised it within the scientific community.

After the decline in Linnaeus's health in the early 1770s, publication of editions of Systema Naturae went in two different directions. Another Swedish scientist,

Species Plantarum (or, more fully, Species Plantarum, exhibentes plantas rite cognitas, ad genera relatas, cum differentiis specificis, nominibus trivialibus, synonymis selectis, locis natalibus, secundum systema sexuale digestas) was first published in 1753, as a two-volume work. Its prime importance is perhaps that it is the primary starting point of plant nomenclature as it exists today.^[110]

Genera plantarum: eorumque characteres naturales secundum numerum, figuram, situm, et proportionem omnium fructificationis partium was first published in 1737, delineating plant genera. Around 10 editions were published, not all of them by Linnaeus himself; the most important is the 1754 fifth edition.

Philosophia Botanica (1751)^[104] was a summary of Linnaeus's thinking on plant classification and nomenclature, and an elaboration of the work he had previously published in Fundamenta Botanica (1736) and Critica Botanica (1737). Other publications forming part of his plan to reform the foundations of botany include his Classes Plantarum and Bibliotheca Botanica: all were printed in Holland (as were Genera Plantarum (1737) and Systema Naturae (1735)), the Philosophia being simultaneously released in Stockholm.^[155]

At the end of his lifetime the Linnean collection in

In April 1766 parts of the town were destroyed by a fire and the Linnean private collection was subsequently moved to a barn outside the town, and shortly afterwards to a single-room stone building close to his country house at Hammarby near Uppsala. This resulted in a physical separation between the two collections; the museum collection remained in the botanical garden of the university. Some material which needed special care (alcohol specimens) or ample storage space was moved from the private collection to the museum.

In Hammarby the Linnean private collections suffered seriously from damp and the depredations by mice and insects. Carl von Linné's son (Carl Linnaeus) inherited the collections in 1778 and retained them until his own death in 1783. Shortly after Carl von Linné's death his son confirmed that mice had caused "horrible damage" to the plants and that also moths and mould had caused considerable damage.^[158] He tried to rescue them from the neglect they had suffered during his father's later years, and also added further specimens. This last activity however reduced rather than augmented the scientific value of the original material.

In 1784 the young medical student James Edward Smith purchased the entire specimen collection, library, manuscripts, and correspondence of Carl Linnaeus from his widow and daughter and transferred the collections to London.^[159][160] Not all material in Linné's private collection was transported to England. Thirty-three fish specimens preserved in alcohol were not sent and were later lost.^[161]

In London Smith tended to neglect the zoological parts of the collection; he added some specimens and also gave some specimens away.^[162] Over the following centuries the Linnean collection in London suffered enormously at the hands of scientists who studied the collection, and in the process disturbed the original arrangement and labels, added specimens that did not belong to the original series and withdrew precious original type material.^[158]

Much material which had been intensively studied by Linné in his scientific career belonged to the collection of

The establishment of universally accepted conventions for the naming of organisms was Linnaeus's main contribution to taxonomy—his work marks the starting point of consistent use of binomial nomenclature.

Linnaeus's groupings were based upon shared physical characteristics, and not based upon differences.[166] Of his higher groupings, only those for animals are still in use, and the groupings themselves have been significantly changed since their conception, as have the principles behind them. Nevertheless, Linnaeus is credited with establishing the idea of a hierarchical structure of classification which is based upon observable characteristics and intended to reflect natural relationships.^[163][167] While the underlying details concerning what are considered to be scientifically valid "observable characteristics" have changed with expanding knowledge (for example, DNA sequencing, unavailable in Linnaeus's time, has proven to be a tool of considerable utility for classifying living organisms and establishing their evolutionary relationships), the fundamental principle remains sound.

Linnaeus's system of taxonomy was especially noted as the first to include humans (Homo) taxonomically grouped with apes (Simia), under the header of Anthropomorpha. German biologist Ernst Haeckel speaking in 1907 noted this as the "most important sign of Linnaeus's genius".^[168]

Linnaeus classified humans among the primates beginning with the first edition of Systema Naturae.^[169] During his time at Hartekamp, he had the opportunity to examine several monkeys and noted similarities between them and man.^[170] He pointed out both species basically have the same anatomy; except for speech, he found no other differences.^{[171][note 6]} Thus he placed man and monkeys under the same category, Anthropomorpha, meaning "manlike".^[172] This classification received criticism from other biologists such as Johan Gottschalk Wallerius, Jacob Theodor Klein and Johann Georg Gmelin on the ground that it is illogical to describe man as human-like.^[173] In a letter to Gmelin from 1747, Linnaeus replied:^{[174][note 7]}

It does not please [you] that I've placed Man among the Anthropomorpha, perhaps because of the term 'with human form',^{[note 8]} but man learns to know himself. Let's not quibble over words. It will be the same to me whatever name we apply. But I seek from you and from the whole world a generic difference between man and simian that [follows] from the principles of Natural History.^{[note 9]} I absolutely know of none. If only someone might tell me a single one! If I would have called man a simian or vice versa, I would have brought together all the theologians against me. Perhaps I ought to have by virtue of the law of the discipline.

The theological concerns were twofold: first, putting man at the same level as monkeys or apes would lower the spiritually higher position that man was assumed to have in the

After such criticism, Linnaeus felt he needed to explain himself more clearly. The 10th edition of Systema Naturae introduced new terms, including Mammalia and Primates, the latter of which would replace Anthropomorpha[177] as well as giving humans the full binomial Homo sapiens.^[178] The new classification received less criticism, but many natural historians still believed he had demoted humans from their former place of ruling over nature and not being a part of it. Linnaeus believed that man biologically belongs to the animal kingdom and had to be included in it.^[179] In his book Dieta Naturalis, he said, "One should not vent one's wrath on animals, Theology decree that man has a soul and that the animals are mere 'automata mechanica,' but I believe they would be better advised that animals have a soul and that the difference is of nobility."^[180]

Linnaeus added a second species to the genus Homo in Systema Naturae based on a figure and description by Jacobus Bontius from a 1658 publication: Homo troglodytes ("caveman")^[182][183] and published a third in 1771: Homo lar.^[184] Swedish historian Gunnar Broberg states that the new human species Linnaeus described were actually simians or native people clad in skins to frighten colonial settlers, whose appearance had been exaggerated in accounts to Linnaeus.^[185] For Homo troglodytes Linnaeus asked the Swedish East India Company to search for one, but they did not find any signs of its existence.^[186] Homo lar has since been reclassified as Hylobates lar, the lar gibbon.^[187]

In the first edition of Systema Naturae, Linnaeus subdivided the human species into four varieties: "Europæus albesc[ens]" (whitish European), "Americanus rubesc[ens]" (reddish American), "Asiaticus fuscus" (tawny Asian) and "Africanus nigr[iculus]" (blackish African).^[188][189] In the tenth edition of Systema Naturae he further detailed phenotypical characteristics for each variety, based on the concept of the

Linnaeus's applied science was inspired not only by the instrumental utilitarianism general to the early Enlightenment, but also by his adherence to the older economic doctrine of Cameralism.^[198] Additionally, Linnaeus was a state interventionist. He supported tariffs, levies, export bounties, quotas, embargoes, navigation acts, subsidised investment capital, ceilings on wages, cash grants, state-licensed producer monopolies, and cartels.^[199]

Anniversaries of Linnaeus's birth, especially in centennial years, have been marked by major celebrations.

Linnaeus wrote a description of himself in his autobiography Egenhändiga anteckningar af Carl Linnæus om sig sjelf : med anmärkningar och tillägg, which was published by his student Adam Afzelius in 1823:

Linnaeus was not big, not small, thin, brown-eyed, light, hasty, walked quickly, did everything promptly, could not stand lateness; was quickly moved, sensitive, worked continuously; could not spare himself. He enjoyed good food, drank good drinks; but was never inebriated by them. He cared little for appearance, believed that the man should embellish the clothes and not vice versa. He was certainly not argumentative, so he never answered those who wrote against him, and said: If I am wrong, I will not win and if I am right, I will be shown to be right as long as Nature exists.^[203]

Andrew Dickson White wrote in A History of the Warfare of Science with Theology in Christendom (1896):

Linnaeus ... was the most eminent naturalist of his time, a wide observer, a close thinker; but the atmosphere in which he lived and moved and had his being was saturated with biblical theology, and this permeated all his thinking. ... Toward the end of his life he timidly advanced the hypothesis that all the species of one genus constituted at the creation one species; and from the last edition of his Systema Naturæ he quietly left out the strongly orthodox statement of the fixity of each species, which he had insisted upon in his earlier works. ... warnings came speedily both from the Catholic and Protestant sides.^[204]

The mathematical

In the 21st century, Linnæus's taxonomy of human "races" has been problematised and discussed. Some critics claim that Linnæus was one of the forebears of the modern pseudoscientific notion of scientific racism, while others hold the view that while his classification was stereotyped, it did not imply that certain human "races" were superior to others.^{[207][208][209][210][211]}

=

Citations

1. CollinsDictionary.com. HarperCollins
   .
2. Oxford Dictionaries Online
   .
3. ^ ^{a b c} Blunt (2004), p. 171.
4. PMID 17436393
   .
5. ^ "Carolus Linnaeus | Biography, Education, Classification System, & Facts". Encyclopædia Britannica. Archived from the original on 28 March 2023. Retrieved 12 April 2023.
6. ^ ^{a b} "What people have said about Linnaeus". Linné on line. Uppsala University. Archived from the original on 8 June 2011. Retrieved 3 October 2011.
7. ^ ^{a b c} "Linnaeus deceased". Linné on line. Uppsala University. Archived from the original on 7 February 2021. Retrieved 3 October 2011.
8. ^ Broberg (2006), p. 7.
9. doi:10.1890/0012-9623(2007)88[72:AHOTES]2.0.CO;2
   .
10. ^ "Linnaeus, Carl (1707–1778)". Author Details. International Plant Names Index. Archived from the original on 14 May 2019. Retrieved 1 October 2011.
11. ^ "Type Specimens: An Overview". American Museum of Natural History. 26 February 2015. Retrieved 25 April 2024.
12. ^ ^{a b} Blunt (2004), p. 12.
13. ^ Stöver (1794), p. 8.
14. ^ Broberg (2006), p. 10.
15. ^ "Nicolaus Linnæus". Geni. July 1674. Archived from the original on 3 February 2016. Retrieved 27 January 2016.
16. ^ "Carolus Linnaeus – Biography, Facts and Pictures". FamousScientists.org. Archived from the original on 6 April 2019. Retrieved 10 April 2019.
17. ^ Fries (2011), p. 376.
18. ^ ^{a b} Blunt (2004), p. 13.
19. ^ Quammen (2007), p. 1.
20. ^ Blunt (2004), p. 15.
21. ISBN 0199561826
22. ISBN 978-1-108-02815-8
    .
23. ^ Blunt (2004), pp. 15–16.
24. ^ Stöver (1794), p. 5.
25. ^ Caddy, Florence (1887). Through the Fields with Linnaeus: A Chapter in Swedish History. Little, Brown, and Company. p. 43. Retrieved 10 April 2021.
26. ^ Blunt (2004), p. 16.
27. ^ Stöver (1794), pp. 5–6.
28. ^ Carl von Linnés betydelse såsom naturforskare och läkare : skildringar utgifna af Kungl. Vetenskapsakademien i anledning af tvåhundraårsdagen af Linnés födelse (source Archived 24 February 2021 at the Wayback Machine)
29. ^ Stöver (1794), p. 6.
30. ^ Blunt (2004), pp. 16–17.
31. ^ ^{a b} Blunt (2004), pp. 17–18.
32. ^ Stöver (1794), pp. 8–11.
33. ^ Blunt (2004), p. 18.
34. ^ Stöver (1794), p. 13.
35. ^ Blunt (2004), pp. 21–22.
36. ^ Stöver (1794), p. 15.
37. ^ Stöver (1794), pp. 14–15.
38. ^ Blunt (2004), pp. 23–25.
39. ^ Blunt (2004), pp. 31–32.
40. ^ Stöver (1794), pp. 19–20.
41. ^ Blunt (2004), pp. 32–34.
42. ^ Blunt (2004), pp. 34–37.
43. ^ ^{a b} Blunt (2001), pp. 36–37.
44. ^ Anderson (1997), p. 40.
45. ^ Anderson (1997), pp. 42–43.
46. ^ Blunt (2001), p. 38.
47. ^
    ISBN 978-0-684-15976-8
    .
48. ^ Blunt (2001), pp. 42–43.
49. ^ Anderson (1997), pp. 43–44.
50. ^ Anderson (1997), p. 46.
51. ^ Blunt (2001), pp. 63–65.
52. ^ Blunt (2004), pp. 39–42.
53. ^ ^{a b} Broberg (2006), p. 29.
54. ^ Quammen (2007), p. 2.
55. ^ Stöver (1794), pp. 38–39.
56. ^ ^{a b} Frodin (2001), p. 27.
57. ^ Blunt (2001), p. 54.
58. ^ Blunt (2001), p. 74.
59. ^ Stöver (1794), p. 71.
60. ^ Blunt (2001), pp. 78–79.
61. ^ ^{a b} Anderson (1997), pp. 60–61.
62. ^ Blunt (2004), p. 90.
63. ^ ^{a b} Blunt (2001), p. 94.
64. ^
    PMID 23835014
    .
65. ^ Linnaeus's thesis on the ague (malaria) Archived 12 August 2014 at the Wayback Machine, 2008, Uppsala University.
66. ^ Anderson (1997), p. 66.
67. ^ Blunt (2004), pp. 98–100.
68. ^ Blunt (2001), p. 98.
69. ^ Anderson (1997), pp. 62–63.
70. ^ ^{a b} Blunt (2004), pp. 100–102.
71. ^ Anderson (1997), p. 64.
72. ^ Stöver (1794), pp. 81–82.
73. ISBN 978-1-928914-80-8
    .
74. ^ Tanner, Vasco M. (1959). "Carl Linnaeus contributions and collections". The Great Basin Naturalist. 19 (1): 27–34. Archived from the original on 10 March 2016. Retrieved 17 February 2016.
75. ^ "Linnaeushof". Hollan.com. 17 January 2013. Archived from the original on 2 February 2017. Retrieved 17 February 2016.
76. ^ Blunt (2001), pp. 106–107.
77. ^ Stöver (1794), p. 89.
78. ^ Non erit Lexicon Hortulanorum, sed etiam Botanicorum, that the book will be, not just a lexicon of gardeners, but of botanists."; noted in Paterson 1986:40–41.
79. ^ Stöver (1794), pp. 89–90.
80. ^ Stöver (1794), pp. 90–93.
81. ^ Stöver (1794), p. 95.
82. ^ Veitch (1897)
83. ^ Blunt (2001), p. 123.
84. ^ ^{a b} Koerner (1999), p. 56.
85. ^ ^{a b c d e f} Louise Petrusson. "Carl Linnaeus". Swedish Museum of Natural History. Archived from the original on 3 May 2007. Retrieved 3 April 2010.
86. ^ Stöver (1794), p. 141.
87. ^ Stöver (1794), pp. 146–147.
88. ^ Koerner (1999), p. 16.
89. ^ Koerner (1999), pp. 103–105.
90. ^ Stöver (1794), p. 382.
91. ^ Gribbin & Gribbin (2008), pp. 49–50.
92. ^ ^{a b} Koerner (1999), p. 115.
93. ^ Blunt (2004), pp. 137–142.
94. ^ Stöver (1794), pp. 117–118.
95. ^ Koerner (1999), p. 204.
96. ^ Blunt (2004), p. 159.
97. ^ Blunt (2004), p. 165.
98. ^ Stöver (1794), p. 167.
99. ^ Linnaeus, Carl (1751). "Carl von Linnés resa till Skåne 1749: 11 juni". Carl von Linnés resa till Skåne 1749 (in Swedish). Stockholm. Archived from the original on 25 November 2021. Retrieved 30 January 2022.
100. ^ Blunt (2004), pp. 198–205.
101. ^ ^{a b} Koerner (1999), p. 116.
102. ^ Gribbin & Gribbin (2008), pp. 56–57.
103. ^ Blunt (2004), pp. 173–174.
104. ^ ^{a b} Linnaeus 1751.
105. ^ Blunt (2004), p. 221.
106. ^ Tönz, Otmar (2006). "Breastfeeding in modern and ancient times: Facts, ideas and beliefs". In Koletzko, Berthold; Michaelsen, K. F.; Hernell, Olle (eds.). Short and Long Term Effects of Breast Feeding on Child Health. Springer. p. 12.
107. ^ Carl Linnaeus (1752). Nutrix Noverca (in Latin).
108. ^ ^{a b} Koerner, Lisbet (2009). Linnaeus: Nature and Nation. pp. 69–70.
109. S2CID 46119192
     .
110. ^ ^{a b} Stace (1991), p. 24.
111. ISBN 978-3-87429-425-6. Archived
     from the original on 4 November 2013. Retrieved 28 July 2014.
112. ^ Sprague (1953)
113. ^ ^{a b} Gribbin & Gribbin (2008), p. 47.
114. ^ Stöver (1794), pp. 198–199.
115. ^ Blunt (2004), p. 166.
116. ^ Blunt (2004), p. 219.
117. ^ Blunt (2004), pp. 220–224.
118. ^ Blunt (2004), p. 6.
119. ^ Gribbin & Gribbin (2008), p. 62.
120. ^ Blunt (2004), p. 199.
121. ^ Blunt (2004), pp. 229–230.
122. ^ Jardine, William, ed. (1865). "Anecdotes of Linnaeus". The Naturalist's Library. Volume VI. Ornithology. Humming birds, Part I. London: Chatto & Windus. p. v.
123. ISBN 91-520-0919-X
     .
124. ^ Uppsala University, Linné Online Archived 23 January 2012 at the Wayback Machine, English language version
125. ^ Soban, Branko. "A Living Bond between Idrija and Uppsala". The Slovenian. Archived from the original on 20 June 2012. Retrieved 4 April 2012.
126. ^ Soban, Branko (January 2005). "A Living Bond between Idrija and Uppsala". Slovenija.svet. Slovene Emigrant Association. Archived from the original on 20 June 2012. Retrieved 1 December 2007.
127. ^ Scopoli, Giovanni Antonio. Joannes A. Scopoli-Carl Linnaeus. Dopisovanje/Correspondence 1760–1775, ed. Darinka Soban. Ljubljana: Slovenian Natural history society.
128. ^ Bell, Whitfield J., and Charles Greifenstein, Jr. Patriot-Improvers: Biographical Sketches of Members of the American Philosophical Society. 3 vols. Philadelphia: American Philosophical Society, 1997, 3:145–147.
129. ^ ^{a b} Blunt (2004), p. 245.
130. ^ Blunt (2004), p. 232.
131. ^ Stöver (1794), pp. 243–245.
132. ^ Broberg (2006), p. 42.
133. ^ Gribbin & Gribbin (2008), p. 63.
134. ^ Quammen (2007), p. 4.
135. ^ ^{a b} Anderson (1997), pp. 104–106.
136. ^ Blunt (2001), pp. 238–240.
137. ^ "Linnaeus, Johannes (1754–1757). Swedish. Son of Carl Linnaeus and Sara Elisabet Linnaea". The Linnaeus Correspondence. Centre international d'étude du XVIIIe siècle. Archived from the original on 27 September 2011. Retrieved 4 October 2011.
138. ^ Blunt (2004), pp. 189–190.
139. ^ Broberg (2006), pp. 37–39.
140. ^ Anderson (1997), pp. 92–93.
141. ^ ^{a b} Blunt (2004), pp. 184–185.
142. ^ Blunt (2004), pp. 185–186.
143. ^ Anderson (1997), pp. 93–94.
144. ^ Anderson (1997), p. 96.
145. ^ Blunt (2004), pp. 191–192.
146. ^ Blunt (2004), pp. 192–193.
147. ^ Blunt (2004), pp. 193–194.
148. ^ Linnaeus (1735)
149. ^ Everts, Sarah (2016). "Information Overload". Distillations. 2 (2): 26–33. Archived from the original on 3 April 2019. Retrieved 20 March 2018.
150. ^ Windelspecht (2002), p. 28.
151. ^ Linné 1774.
152. ^ Linné 1785.
153. ^ Stace (1991), p. 22.
154. ^ Van den Hoek et al. (2005).
155. ^ Stafleu (1971), p. 157.
156. ^ ^{a b} Wallin, L. 2001. Archived 27 October 2012 at the Wayback Machine Catalogue of type specimens. 4. Linnaean specimens. – pp. [1], 1–128. Uppsala. (Uppsala University, Museum of Evolution, Zoology Section).
157. ^ Lisbet Koerner, "Carl Linnaeus in his Time and Place", in Cultures of Natural History, ed. Nicholas Jardine, James A. Secord, and Emma C. Spary (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1995), pp. 145–162.
158. ^ ^{a b} Dance, S.P. 1967. Report on the Linnaean shell collection. – Proceedings of the Linnean Society of London 178 (1): 1–24, Pl. 1–10.
159. doi:10.1016/S0160-9327(99)01212-0. Archived from the original
     (PDF) on 13 August 2017. Retrieved 28 January 2018.
160. ^ Fries (2011), pp. 342–357.
161. ^ Wallin, Lars (14 February 2001). "Catalogue of type specimens. 4" (PDF). Uppsala University Museum of Evolution Zoology Section (6): 4. Archived from the original (PDF) on 27 October 2012. Retrieved 25 February 2019.
162. ^ Examples are evident in the Portland catalogue p. 76 Lot 1715 and p. 188 Lot 3997. Archived 18 October 2019 at the Wayback Machine "A catalogue of the Portland Museum, lately the property of the Duchess Dowager of Portland, deceased: Which will be sold by auction by Mr. Skinner and Co. On Monday the 24th of April, 1786, and the thirty-seven following days (...) at her late dwelling-house, in Privy-Garden, Whitehall, by order of the Acting Executrix." – pp. i–viii [= 1–8], 3–194, pl. [1]. [London]. (Skinner).
163. ^ ^{a b} Reveal & Pringle (1993), pp. 160–161.
164. ISBN 978-962-593-076-3
     .
165. ^ Simpson (1961), pp. 16–19.
166. ^ ^{a b} Davis & Heywood (1973), p. 17.
167. ^ Simpson (1961), pp. 56–57.
168. ^ Sven Horstadius, Linnaeus, animals and man, Biol. J. Linn. Soc. 6 (December 1974), 269–275 (p. 273).
169. ^ The Book of Popular Science. 1963.
170. ^ Gribbin & Gribbin (2008), pp. 173–174.
171. ^ Frängsmyr et al. (1983), p. 170.
172. ^ Frängsmyr et al. (1983), p. 167.
173. ^ Johann Georg Gmelin (30 December 1746). "Letter to Carl Linnaeus". The Linnean Correspondence. St. Petersburg, Russia. L0759. Archived from the original on 27 September 2011. Retrieved 4 October 2011.
174. ^ Carl Linnaeus (25 February 1747). "Letter to Johann Georg Gmelin". The Linnean Correspondence. Uppsala, Sweden. L0783. Archived from the original on 27 February 2009. Retrieved 4 October 2011. Also available as JPG Archived 4 July 2011 at the Wayback Machine.
175. ^ Genesis 1:26–1:27
176. ^ Frängsmyr et al. (1983), pp. 171–172.
177. ^ Frängsmyr et al. (1983), p. 175.
178. ^ Blunt (2004), p. 8.
179. ^ Frängsmyr et al. (1983), pp. 191–192.
180. ^ Frängsmyr et al. (1983), p. 166.
181. ^ C. E. Hoppius, "Anthropomorpha", Amoenitates Academicae vol. 6 (1763).
182. ^ Linnaeus (1758), p. 24.
183. ^ Bontius (1658), p. 84 Archived 21 July 2017 at the Wayback Machine.
184. ^ Linnaeus (1771), p. 521.
185. ^ Frängsmyr et al. (1983), p. 187.
186. ^ Frängsmyr et al. (1983), p. 186.
187. ^ Wilson & Reeder (2005), p. 179.
188. ^ In later editions the naming was changed from whitish, reddish, tawny, blackish to white (albus), red (rufus), pale yellow (luridus), and black (niger). Staffan Müller-Wille "Linnaeus and the Four Corners of the World", in The Cultural Politics of Blood, 1500–1900, ed. Ralph Bauer, Kim Coles, Zit Nines, and Carla Peterson, 191–209 (Houndmills, Basingstoke, Hampshire, UK: Palgrave, 2015 [5] Archived 24 June 2020 at the Wayback Machine
189. ^ Braziel (2007), pp. 43–44.
190. ^ ^{[need quotation to verify]} Loring Brace (2005), p. 27. Slotkin (1965), pp. 176–178. Marks (2010), p. 265.
191. ^ Keevak (2011), pp. 3–4.
192. ISBN 978-1-349-46395-4
     .
193. ^ Charmantier, Isabelle (2020). "Linnaeus and Race". The Linnean Society. Archived from the original on 4 June 2023. Retrieved 30 November 2023.
194. ^ Willoughby (2007), pp. 33–34, citing Broberg (1975), p. 291.
195. S2CID 85221313
     .
196. JSTOR 4065043
     .
197. ^ Notton, David; Stringer, Chris. "Who is the type of Homo sapiens?". International Commission on Zoological Nomenclature. Archived from the original on 14 May 2019. Retrieved 3 December 2018.
198. ^ Koerner (1999), p. 95–96.
199. ^ Koerner (1999), p. 97.
200. ^ ^{a b} Östholm (2007)
201. ^ "A modern, international university in the Småland region of Sweden". Linnaeus University. Archived from the original on 7 February 2019. Retrieved 3 October 2011.
202. ^ "Linnaeosicyos H.Schaef. & Kocyan | Plants of the World Online | Kew Science". Plants of the World Online. Archived from the original on 20 October 2021. Retrieved 27 May 2021.
203. ^ Afzelius A., Linné C., Egenhändiga anteckningar af Carl Linnæus om sig sjelf : med anmärkningar och tillägg Upsala, Palmblad & C, 1823 p. 123 [6] [7]
204. ^ Andrew Dickson White, History of the Warfare of Science with Theology in Christendom (1922) Vol.1 pp. 59–61
205. PMID 25738291
     .
206. ^ Tamblyn, Thomas (12 June 2014). "Wikipedia Reveals Most Influential Person in History, No It's Not Jesus". HuffPost. Archived from the original on 2 February 2016. Retrieved 28 January 2016.
207. ^ Renato G Mazzolini – Skin Color and the Origin of Physical Anthropology. in: Reproduction, Race, and Gender in Philosophy and the Early Life Sciences. Ed. Susanne Lettow. 2014
208. ^ Kenneth A.R. Kennedy (1976), "Human Variation in Space and Time". Wm. C. Brown Company, p. 25. Kennedy writes that while "Linnaeus was the first to use biological traits as a basis for further subdivisions of the species into varieties. It would be unfair to ascribe racist motives to this effort."
209. ^ Gould 1981, p. 67
210. ^ Rachel N. Hastings (2008), "Black Eyez: Memoirs of a Revolutionary", p. 17
211. ISSN 0274-7529. Archived
     from the original on 20 January 2021. Retrieved 26 September 2022.
212. ^ International Plant Names Index.  L.

Sources

• Anderson, Margaret J. (1997). Carl Linnaeus: Father of Classification. United States: Enslow Publishers.
  ISBN 978-0-89490-786-9
  .
• Blunt, Wilfrid (2001). Linnaeus: the compleat naturalist. London: Frances Lincoln.
  ISBN 978-0-7112-1841-3
  .
• Blunt, Wilfrid (2004). Linnaeus: the compleat naturalist. London: Frances Lincoln.
  ISBN 978-0-7112-2362-2
  .
• Bontius, J. (1658). "Historiae naturalis & medicae Indiae Orientalis libri sex". In Gulielmo Piso (ed.). De Indiæ Utriusque re naturali et medica libri quatuordecim. Quorum contenta pagina sequens exhibet. Amsterdam: Elzevier. pp. 1–226. Archived from the original on 21 July 2017. Retrieved 13 January 2018.
• Braziel, Jana Evans (2007). "Genre, race, erasure: a genealogical critique of "American" autobiography". In Joseph A. Young and Jana Evans Braziel (ed.). Erasing Public Memory: Race, Aesthetics, and Cultural Amnesia in the Americas. Mercer University Press. pp. 35–70.
  ISBN 978-0-88146-076-6
  .
• ISBN 91-85286-05-2
  .
• Broberg, Gunnar (2008). "The Dragonslayer". Tijdschrift voor Skandinavistiek. 29 (1–2): 29–43. Archived from the original on 12 January 2013.
• ISBN 978-91-520-0912-3
  .
• Davis, P.H.; Heywood, V H. (1973). Principles of Angiosperm Taxonomy. Huntington, New York: Robert E. Krieger Publishing Company.
• ISBN 978-1-84046-444-3
  . Retrieved 22 February 2015.
• Frängsmyr, Tore; Lindroth, Sten; Eriksson, Gunnar; Broberg, Gunnar (1983). Linnaeus, the man and his work. Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press.
  ISBN 978-0-7112-1841-3
  .
• Fries, Theodor Magnus (2011) [1923]. Jackson, Benjamin Daydon (ed.). Linnaeus. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
  ISBN 978-1-108-03723-5
  .
• Frodin, D.G. (2001). "The evolution of floras". Guide to Standard Floras of the World: an Annotated, Geographically Arranged Systematic Bibliography of the Principal Floras, Enumerations, Checklists, and Chorological Atlases of Different Areas (2nd ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 24–51.
  ISBN 978-0-521-79077-2
  .
• ISBN 978-0-393-01489-1
  .
• Gribbin, Mary; Gribbin, John (2008). Flower Hunters. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
  ISBN 978-0-19-956182-7
  .
• Keevak, Michael (2011). Becoming Yellow: A Short History of Racial Thinking. Princeton University Press.
  ISBN 978-0-691-14031-5
  .
• ISBN 978-0-674-09745-2
  .
• Loring Brace, C. (2005). "Race" is a Four Letter Word. The Genesis of the Concept. Oxford University Press.
  ISBN 978-0-19-517351-2
  .
• Marks, Jonathan (2010). "Ten facts about human variation". In Muehlenbein, Michael (ed.). Human Evolutionary Biology. Cambridge University Press. pp. 265–276.
  ISBN 978-0-521-87948-4
  .
• Östholm, Hanna (2007). Mary J. Morris and Leonie Berwick (ed.). "The Linnaean Legacy: Three Centuries after his Birth" (PDF). The Linnean. Special Issue No. 8: 35–44. Archived from the original (PDF) on 17 July 2011.
• Quammen, David (June 2007). "The Name Giver". National Geographic. Archived from the original on 15 April 2010. Retrieved 3 April 2010.
• Reveal, James L.; Pringle, James S. (1993). "7. Taxonomic Botany and Floristics". Flora of North America. Vol. 1. New York and Oxford: Oxford University Press.
  ISBN 978-0-19-505713-3
  .
• Simpson, George Gaylord (1961). Principles of Animal Taxonomy. New York and London: Columbia University Press.
  ISBN 9780231024273
  .
• Slotkin, J.S. (1965). "The Eighteenth Century". Readings in early Anthropology. Methuen Publishing. pp. 175–243.
• Sprague, T. A. (1953). "Linnaeus as a nomenclaturist". Taxon. 2 (3): 40–46.
  JSTOR 1217339
  .
• ISBN 978-0-521-42785-2
  .
• ISBN 978-90-6046-064-1
  .
• Stöver, Dietrich Johann Heinrich (1794). Joseph Trapp (ed.). The life of Sir Charles Linnæus. London: Library of Congress.
  OCLC 5660395
  .
• Van den Hoek, C.; D.G. Mann & H.M. Jahns (2005). Algae: An Introduction to Phycology. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
  ISBN 978-0-521-30419-1
  .
• Veitch, H.J. (1897). "Nepenthes". Journal of the Royal Horticultural Society. 21 (2): 226–262.
• Willoughby, Pamela (2007). The Evolution of Modern Humans in Africa: a Comprehensive Guide. AltaMira Press.
  ISBN 978-0-7591-0119-7
  .
• Wilson, Don E.; DeeAnn M. Reeder (2005).
  ISBN 978-0-8018-8221-0
  .
• Windelspecht, Michael (2002). Groundbreaking Scientific Experiments, Inventions, and Discoveries of the 17th century. Greenwood Publishing Group.
  ISBN 978-0-313-31501-5
  .

Further reading

• ISBN 9789127153882. 516 pages.
  Review: Roman, Hanna (January 2024). "Gunnar Broberg. The Man Who Organized Nature: The Life of Linnaeus. Trans. Anna Paterson. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2023. Illustrations. 512 pp. $39.95 (cloth), ISBN 978-0-691-21342-2". h-net.org. H-Net: Humanities & Social Sciences Online. Digital Humanities. Michigan State University. Archived from the original
  on 22 January 2024. Retrieved 14 September 2024.
• Brightwell, C.L. (1858). A Life of Linnaeus. London: J. Van Voorst.
• Edward Lee Greene (1912). Carolus Linnaeus. Philadelphia: Christopher Sower Company. Archived from the original on 8 July 2017. Retrieved 13 January 2018.
• Lys de Bray (2001). The Art of Botanical Illustration: A history of classic illustrators and their achievements. London: Quantum Publishing Ltd. pp. 62–71.
  ISBN 978-1-86160-425-5
  .
• Edmund Otis Hovey (1908). The Bicentenary of the Birth of Carolus Linnaeus. New York: New York Academy of Sciences.
• doi:10.3366/ccs.2005.2.2.191
  .
• S2CID 142994653
  .
• Sverker Sörlin; Otto Fagerstedt (2004). Linné och hans apostlar (in Swedish). Stockholm: Natur & Kultur/Fakta.
  ISBN 978-91-27-35590-3
  .
• Albers, Lucia (1982). "Linnaeus' verblijf op de Hartekamp". Het Landgoed de Hartekamp in Heemstede (in Dutch). Heemstede: Vereniging Oud-Heemstede-Bennebroek.
  ISBN 978-90-70712-01-3
  .
• Lars Hansen, ed. (2007–2011). The Linnaeus Apostles – Global Science & Adventure. 8 vols. 11 books. London & Whitby: The IK Foundation & Company.
  ISBN 978-1-904145-26-4
  .

External links

Wikimedia Commons has media related to Linnaeus.

Wikiquote has quotations related to Carl Linnaeus.

Wikispecies has information related to Carl Linnaeus.

Wikisource has original works by or about:
Carl Linnaeus

Wikivoyage has a travel guide for Carl Linnaeus tourism.

Biographies

• Biography at the Department of Systematic Botany, University of Uppsala
• Biography at The Linnean Society of London
• Biography from the University of California Museum of Paleontology
• A four-minute biographical video from the London Natural History Museum on YouTube
• Biography from Taxonomic Literature, 2nd Edition. 1976–2009.

Resources

• Works by Carl von Linné at Project Gutenberg
• Works by or about Carl Linnaeus at the Internet Archive
• The Linnean Society of London
• The Linnaeus Apostles
• The Linnean Collections
• The Linnean Correspondence
• Linnaeus's Disciples and Apostles
• The Linnaean Dissertations
• Linnean Herbarium
• The Linnaeus Tercentenary
• Works by Carl von Linné at the Biodiversity Heritage Library
• Digital edition: "Critica Botanica" by the University and State Library Düsseldorf
• Digital edition: "Classes plantarum seu systemata plantarum" by the University and State Library Düsseldorf
• Oratio de telluris habitabilis incremento Archived 29 October 2020 at the Wayback Machine (1744) – full digital facsimile from Linda Hall Library

Other

• Linnaeus was depicted by Jay Hosler in a parody of Peanuts titled "Good ol' Charlie Darwin".
• The 15 March 2007 issue of Nature featured a picture of Linnaeus on the cover with the heading "Linnaeus's Legacy" and devoted a substantial portion to items related to Linnaeus and Linnaean taxonomy.
• A tattoo of Linnaeus's definition of the order Primates (Archived 2 December 2010 at the Wayback Machine) mentioned by Carl Zimmer
• Ginkgo biloba tree at the University of Harderwijk, said to have been planted by Linnaeus in 1735
• SL Magazine, Spring 2018 features an article by Nicholas Sparks, librarian, Collection Strategy and Development titled "Origins of Taxonomy", describing a generous donation from the Linnean Society of NSW to supplement the State Library of New South Wales's collections on Carl Linnaeus of documents, photographs, prints and drawings as well as a fine portrait of Linnaeus painted about 1800.