Carlisle Indian Industrial School
Carlisle Indian Industrial School | |
Colonial Revival | |
NRHP reference No. | 66000658[1] |
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Significant dates | |
Added to NRHP | October 15, 1966[1] |
Designated NHL | July 4, 1961[3] |
Designated PHMC | August 31, 2003[2] |
The United States Indian Industrial School in
History
19th century
Founded in 1879 by Lieutenant Richard Henry Pratt under U.S. government authorization, Carlisle Indian Industrial School was an early federally funded off-reservation Indian boarding school initiated by the U.S. government. Choctaw Academy in Scott County, Kentucky, was the first such boarding school, but was initiated by Choctaw leaders and then funded by the U.S. government through the 1819 Civilization Fund Act.[5]
Pratt had earlier supervised Native American prisoners of war, and supported some of them in gaining education at Hampton College. He became convinced that education was the key to assimilation. In his own words, Pratt's motto was, "Kill the Indian, save the man." The US applied this principle to the cultural assimilation efforts of the larger American Indian boarding school system, by requiring children to speak only English, practice Christianity, take on new names and wear European-American style clothing.[6]
Pratt wrote that he believed that Native Americans were 'equal' to European Americans, and that the school worked to immerse students into mainstream Euro-American culture. He believed that this would enable them to advance and thrive in the dominant society, and be leaders to their people.[7][8]
After the government assessed the initial success of older Indian students at
As at Hampton, arriving students were shorn of their long hair, and even their names were changed. However, "unlike Hampton, whose purpose was to return assimilated educated Indians to their people, Carlisle meant to turn the school into the ultimate Americanizer".[8] At Carlisle, Pratt established a highly structured, quasi-military regime. He was known to use corporal punishment, which was not uncommon in society at the time, on students.[9]
Carlisle emerged as the model for 26 off-reservation Bureau of Indian Affairs boarding schools that were ultimately developed in 15 states and territories. Some private boarding schools were sponsored by religious denominations. In addition, the government operated a total of more than 300 schools on reservations, many of which accepted boarding students from other tribes.
At
The U.S. Commissioner of Education came to see firsthand what Pratt was doing, as did the president of Amherst College.[10] Pratt's Fort Marion program convinced him that "distant education" was the only way to totally assimilate the Indian. He wrote, the Indian "is born a blank, like all the rest of us. Transfer the savage born infant to the surroundings of a civilization and he will grow to possess a civilized language and habit."[11]
Pratt wrote:
If all men are created equal, then why were blacks segregated in separate regiments and Indians segregated on separate tribal reservations? Why weren't all men given equal opportunities and allowed to assume their rightful place in society? Race became a meaningless abstraction in his mind.[12]
Pratt believed an industrial school model similar to the Hampton Institute would be useful for educating and assimilating Native Americans.
Give me three hundred young Indians and a place in one of our best communities, and let me prove it! Carlisle Barracks in Pennsylvania, has been abandoned for a number of years. It is in the heart of fine agricultural country. The people are kindly disposed, and long free from the universal border prejudice against Indians.
— Pratt[13]
Pratt and his supporters successfully lobbied Congress to establish the off-reservation boarding school for Native Americans at the historic Carlisle Barracks in Carlisle, Pennsylvania.[7]
By October 1879, Lieutenant Pratt had recruited the first students for the Carlisle Indian Industrial School; 82 boys and girls arrived one night at midnight at the railroad station. They were met by hundreds of local residents who escorted them to the "Old Barracks".[14] The Carlisle Indian School formally opened on November 1, 1879, with an enrollment of 147 students. The youngest was six and the eldest twenty-five, but the majority were teenagers.
Two-thirds were children of leaders of the Plains Indian tribes, with whom the U.S. had recently been at war. The first class was made up of 84 Lakota, 52 Cheyenne, Kiowa and Pawnee, and 11 Apache. The class included a group of students, former prisoners from Fort Marion, who wanted to continue their education with Pratt at Carlisle.[15]
Pratt believed Native Americans were the equal of whites, and founded Carlisle to immerse their children in white culture and teach them English, new skills and customs, in order to help them survive. After the end of
As part of Pratt's curriculum in cultural and language immersion, the school's students were expected to learn English. School officials also required students to take new English names, either by choice or assignment. This was confusing, as the names from which they had to choose had no meaning for them.
The children were forced to change their manner of dress and to give up their traditional tribal ways. The boys all had long hair, which was a strong tradition in their cultures: it was cut short in Euro-American style. Students were required to wear school uniforms of American-style clothing, and girls were provided with uniform dresses.
Standing Bear later wrote of this period:
The civilizing process at Carlisle began with clothes. Whites believed the Indian children could not be civilized while wearing moccasins and blankets. Their hair was cut because in some mysterious way long hair stood in the path of our development. They were issued the clothes of white men. High collar stiff-bosomed shirts and suspenders fully three inches in width were uncomfortable. White leather boots caused actual suffering.[18]
Standing Bear said that red flannel underwear caused "actual torture."[18] He remembered the red flannel underwear as "the worst thing about life at Carlisle."[18]
Some children arrived at Carlisle able to speak some English; they were used by school officials as translators for other students. Officials sometimes took advantage of the children's traditional respect for elders to get them to inform on peers' misbehaviors. This was consistent with accepted practice in the large European-American families of the time, where older children were often required to care for and discipline their younger siblings.
School discipline was strict and consistent, according to the military tradition. Students faced 'courts-martial' for serious cases.
Children who could not adjust at Carlisle eventually returned to their families and homes. Some ran away because of being homesick and unhappy. According to Eastman, several years after one young man ran away, he approached Pratt in the lobby of a New York hotel. He said that he had found a good job, was working hard, and had saved some money. "Hurrah!" the Captain exclaimed. "I wish all my boys would run away!"[20]
Student recruitment
In November 1878, Pratt was ordered by the War Department to report to the Secretary of the Interior for 'Indian education' duty. He traveled to
The War Department ordered Pratt to go to Red Cloud (Oglala) and Spotted Tail (Sicangu), to compel the chiefs to surrender their children. The government believed that by removing the Lakota, Dakota, and Nakota children from their homes, the US would have leverage against the tribes in their continuing attempt to acquire tribal land. Pratt said that, "The children would be hostages for the good behavior of the people."[21]
Pratt persuaded tribal elders and chiefs that the reason the "Washichu" (Lakota word for white man, loosely translates to Takes the Fat) had been able to take their land was that the Indians were uneducated. He said that the Natives were disadvantaged by being unable to speak and write English and, if they had that knowledge, they might have been able to protect themselves. Pratt used this speech to convince chief Spotted Tail to send his children to the school. At first he had been reluctant to relinquish his children to the government that had stolen native land and violated their treaties.
Spotted Tail, you are a remarkable man. [...] You are such an able man that you are the principal chief of these thousands of your people. But Spotted Tail, you cannot read or write. You claim that the government has tricked your people and placed the lines of your reservation a long way inside of where it was agreed that they should be. [...] You signed that paper, knowing only what the interpreter told you it said. If anything happened when the paper was being made up that changed its order, if you had been educated and could read and write, you could have known about it and refused to put your name on it. Do you intend to let your children remain in the same condition of ignorance in which you have lived, which will compel them always to meet the whiter man at a great disadvantage through an interpreter, as you have to do? [...] As your friend, Spotted Tail, I urge you to send your children with me to this Carlisle School and I will do everything I can to advance them in intelligence and industry in order that they may come back and help you.[22]
Consent to send students to Carlisle was often gained with concessions, such as the promise to allow tribal leaders inspect the school soon after it opened.
The first group of inspectors, some 40 Lakota, Dakota, and Nakota chiefs representing nine Missouri River agencies, visited Carlisle in June 1880. Other tribal leaders followed. Before tribal delegations returned home, they usually spent a few days in Washington where they received the plaudits of government officials for allowing their children to participate in the Carlisle experiment.[23]
Some tribes initially consented to sending their children to off-reservation boarding schools, but many were skeptical of the school system and its intentions. Many tribes did not believe the promises of the schools, as they were scarred by the genocidal tactics of the U.S. government.[24] Once students were in school, communication with home was virtually cut off. Letters from parents were left unsent by Indian Agents, and parents were not notified promptly when their children were ill or even after they died.
Although the Civilization Fund Act of 1819 required parental consent for children to be sent to off-reservation boarding schools, in practice children were regularly forcibly removed.[25] US officials justified the practice of forceful removal because they believed that native parenting practices were seen as inferior to mainstream white parenting. John S. Ward, a US Indian Agent, said that "The parents of these Indian children are ignorant, and know nothing of the value of education... Parental authority is hardly known or exercised among the Indians in this agency. The agent should be endowed with some kind of authority to enforce attendance. The agent here has found that a threat to depose a captain if he does not make the children attend school has had a good effect."[26] Ward reiterated the US government's self-appointed position as a patriarchal ward over natives. Government officials treated tribal nations as dependents, and acted as if they could justifiably force a childlike nation to do what was best for them. The US officially legalized the denial of native parental rights in 1891, leading to mass forced removal of native children from their families.[26] It was not until the 1976 Indian Child Welfare Act that this practice was ended.
American Horse
Oglala Lakota Chief American Horse was one of the earliest advocates of 'western' (Euro-immigrant) education for Native Americans.[27] While recruiting at Pine Ridge Reservation, Pratt had met strong opposition from Chief Red Cloud. He distrusted white education but had no school-age children.
American Horse "took a lively interest" in what Pratt had to say. He was a tribal leader and head of a large household with at least ten children. He believed that his children would have to deal with whites, and perhaps live with them, whether they liked it or not. He decided to send two sons and a daughter for the first class at Carlisle in 1879.[28]
Model U.S. Indian Boarding School
Pratt was so successful in his correspondence and methods that many Western chiefs, whose people were suffering from cold and hunger on their reservations, begged him to bring more children East. The chiefs also wrote to Washington with a request to educate more of their children.[29]
News of the educational experiment spread rapidly, and many whites went to Carlisle to volunteer services and professional talents.[29] Pratt developed a photographic record of the school for publicity and documentation. The institution and the school were photographed during the school's existence by approximately a dozen professional photographers. The first and best known photographer of the Carlisle Indian School was John Nicolas Choate.[30] After Indian dress was replaced with military uniforms and the children's hair was cut in Anglo fashion, the Indians' physical appearance was transformed. In an effort to convince doubters of the transformation possible, Pratt hired photographers to present this evidence. Before and after "contrast" photos were sent to officials in Washington, friends of the new school, and back to reservations to recruit new students.[31]
The minimum age for students was fourteen, and all students were required to be at least one-fourth Indian. The Carlisle term was five years, and the consent forms which the parents signed before the agent so stated. Pratt refused to return pupils earlier unless they were ill, unsuitable mentally, or a menace to others.[32]
Between 1899 and 1904, Carlisle issued thirty to forty-five degrees a year. In 1905, a survey of 296 Carlisle graduates showed that 124 had entered government service (often with reservation agencies), and 47 were employed off the reservations.[33]
Anniversaries and other school events attracted whites of distinction. US senators, Indian commissioners, secretaries of the Interior, college presidents, and noted clergymen were among those invited to present the diplomas or address the graduating class upon these occasions. The gymnasium held 3,000 persons and was generally filled with an audience of townspeople and distinguished visitors showing their support for aspiring Carlisle students.[34]
Community
Carlisle, Pennsylvania
In 1880,
Dickinson College
Carlisle was also home to
In 1889, Dr. George Edward Reed assumed the position of President of Dickinson College and continued the close relationship between the Indian School and Dickinson College through Pratt's departure in 1904. Reed told an audience at the Indian School that "we who live in Carlisle, who come in constant contact with the Indian School, and who know of its work, have occasion to be agreeably surprised with the advance we are able to see." In June 1911, Reed addressed the one hundred and twenty-eighth commencement of Dickinson College, where he presented an Honorary Degree of Master of Arts to Pratt's successor, Superintendent Moses Friedman, for his work at the Carlisle Indian School. [43]
Prof. Charles Francis Himes was a professor of natural science at Dickinson College for three decades and instrumental in expanding the science curriculum. Professor Hines took an interest in the Carlisle Indian School and his notable lectures on electricity ("Why Does It Burn"), "Lightning" and "Gunpowder" received a favorable reaction from parents and students. Himes lectured to Chiefs
Luther Standing Bear recalled that one day an astronomer came to Carlisle and gave a talk. "The astronomer explained that there would be an eclipse of the moon the following Wednesday night at twelve o'clock. We did not believe it. When the moon eclipsed, we readily believed our teacher about geography and astronomy."[45]
In addition to academic contact, the two institutes had contact in the public venue as well. The best known instances include the regular defeats of Dickinson College by the Carlisle Indian School football team and other athletic competitions.[46]
Curricula and extracurricular programs
Carlisle curricula included subjects such as English, math, history, drawing and composition. Students also learned trade and work skills such as farming and manufacturing. Older students used their skills to help build new classrooms and dormitories. Carlisle students produced a variety of weekly and monthly newspapers and other publications that were considered part of their "industrial training," or preparing for work in the larger economy.
A summer camp was established in the mountains at Pine Grove Furnace State Park, near a place called Tagg's Run. Students lived in tents and picked berries, hunted and fished.[47] Luther Standing Bear recalled: "In 1881, after the school closed for the summer vacation, some of the boys and girls were placed out in farmers' homes to work throughout the summer. Those who remained at school were sent to the mountains for a vacation trip. I was among the number. When we reached our camping place, we pitched out tents like soldiers all in a row. Captain Pratt brought along a lot of feathers and some sinew, and we made bows and arrows. Many white people came to visit the Indian camp, and seeing us shooting with the bow and arrow, they would put nickels and dimes in a slot of wood and set them up for us to shoot at. If we knocked the money from the stick, it was ours. We enjoyed this sport very much, as it brought a real home thrill to us."[48]
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Carlisle Students in School Uniform Exercising Inside Gymnasium; Some with Indian Clubs, Others with Gymnastic Equipment; Non-Native Group Watching, 1879
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The Carlisle Arrow and Red Man, school publication
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The Red Man, The Carlisle Indian Press (1910)
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Young women students at gym class, 1880
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Susan Longstreth Literary Society, 1895
The Indian club or Pelhwan Meel is an exercise equipment tool of Persian origin introduced from India..
Carlisle Summer Outing Program
The Carlisle Summer Outing Program arranged for students to work in homes as domestic servants or in farms or businesses during the summer. The program won praise from reformers and administrators alike and helped increase the public's faith that Indians could be educated and assimilated. The program gave students opportunities to interact and live in the white world and found jobs for students during the summer months with middle-class farm families where they earned their first wages.[49] Many students worked in the homes and farms of Quaker families in eastern Pennsylvania and surrounding states.[50] Some were sent to farms in the Pennsylvania Dutch Country of Dauphin, Lancaster, and Lebanon counties and acquired what would be a lifelong Pennsylvania Dutch accent.[51]
Students were required to write home at least every month, and as often as they chose. Nearly all the students lovingly inquired after absent brothers and sisters, and many sent money home ten or twenty dollars of their own earnings.[52]
Maggie Stands Looking, a daughter of Oglala Lakota Chief American Horse, was among the first wave of children brought from Rosebud and one of Captain Pratt's model students. Maggie had difficulty adjusting to the demands of her new lifestyle at Carlisle, and once slapped Miss Hyde, the matron, when Hyde insisted that Maggie make her bed every day and keep her room clean. Instead of retaliating, Miss Hyde stood her ground and Maggie acquiesced. Like most of the Carlisle students, Maggie was enrolled in the Summer Outing Program. After her arrival to her country home, Maggie wrote a letter to Pratt. "Dear Captain Pratt: What shall I do? I have been here two weeks and I have not bathed. These folks have no bath place. Your school daughter, Maggie Stands Looking." Pratt advised her to do as he had done on the frontier and signed his letter "Your friend and school father. R.H. Pratt." Maggie replied, "After filling a wash basin with water and rubbing myself well, have had a bath that made me feel as good as jumping into a river."[53]
The Outing Program continued throughout the Carlisle's history, and of the thousands who attended Carlisle for the first twenty-four years, a least half participated in the program.[50] Around 1909, Superintendent Friedman expanded the Outing Program by placing boys in manufacturing corporations such as Ford Motor Company.[54] Over sixty of the boys from Carlisle were subsequently hired and worked steadily for Ford.[55] During the later part of World War I, about forty had good jobs in the Hog Island, Philadelphia, shipyards.[55]
Student internships
In 1883, Luther Standing Bear was sent to Philadelphia to work as an intern for John Wanamaker. Wanamaker's was the first department store in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, and one of the first department stores in the United States. Luther was told by Pratt: "My boy you are going away from us to work for this school. Go and do your best. The majority of white people think the Indian is a lazy good-for-nothing. They think he can neither work nor learn anything; that he is very dirty. Now you are going to prove that the red man can learn and work as well as the white man. If John Wanamaker gives you the job of blacking his shoes, see that you make them shine. Then he will give you a better job. If you are put into the office to clean, don't forget to sweep up under the chairs and in the corners. If you do this well, he will give you better work to do."[56] While riding on street cars in Philadelphia, Luther did not care to listen to the vulgar language used by white boys on the way to work.[57] At the end of his internship, the entire Carlisle school students and faculty traveled to a large meeting hall in Philadelphia where Pratt and Wanamaker spoke. Luther was asked to come to the stage, and Wanamaker told the students that Luther had been promoted from one department to another every month getting better work and better money and in spite of the fact that he employed over one thousand people, he never promoted anyone as rapidly as Luther.[58]
The "Carlisle Indians" (sports teams)
During the early 20th century, the Carlisle Indian School was a national football powerhouse, and regularly competed against other major programs such as the Ivy League schools
In 1911, the Indians posted an 11–1 record, which included one of the greatest upsets in college football history. Legendary athlete Jim Thorpe and coach Pop Warner led the Carlisle Indians to an 18–15 upset of Harvard before 25,000 in Cambridge, Massachusetts. Thorpe scored all the points for Carlisle, a touchdown, extra point and four field goals.[60] During the program's 25 years, the Carlisle Indians compiled a 167–88–13 record and winning percentage (.647), which makes it the most successful defunct major college football program. The Carlisle Indians developed a rivalry with Harvard and loved to sarcastically mimic the Harvard accent. Even players who could barely speak English would drawl the broad Harvard "a" as in the Boston accent is non-rhotic, typically pronounced "pahk the cah in Hahvad Yahd". Carlisle students labeled any excellent performance, whether on the field or in the classroom, as "Harvard style".[61]
On November 9, 1912, Carlisle was to meet the
Many Carlisle Indians, such
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Jim Thorpe in his "Carlisle Indians" football uniform. c. 1909
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The 1911 "Carlisle Indians" football team pose with a game ball from the upset of Harvard. Coach "Pop" Warner (standing, third from right) and Jim Thorpe (seated, third from right) are pictured.
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Albert Exendine was a graduate of the Carlisle Indian School and the Dickinson School of Law. c. 1905
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Frank Mount Pleasant was the first Carlisle Indian School student to graduate from Dickinson College, 1912
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American Expeditionary Force in World War I
The Carlisle Indian Band
The Carlisle Indian Band earned an international reputation under a talented Oneida musician, Dennison Wheelock, who became noted as its leader, composer and compiler of modified Native airs.[64] Many students studied classical musical instruments. The Carlisle Indian Band performed at world fairs, expositions and every at national presidential inaugural celebration until the school closed. Luther Standing Bear was a bugler for military calls and educated as a classical musician. On May 24, 1883, Luther Standing Bear led the Carlisle Indian band of brass instruments as the first band to cross the Brooklyn Bridge on its grand opening.[65]
From 1897 to 1899,
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The Carlisle Indian Band performed at world fairs, expositions and at every national presidential inaugural celebration until the school closed - Carlisle, Pennsylvania, 1915
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Carlisle Indian Students at the Centennial of the Constitution Parade - Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, 1887
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The Carlisle Indian Band earned an international reputation. Carlisle Indian School Band and Battalion - Carlisle, Pennsylvania, c. 1911
Native American arts program
In 1906, Leupp appointed
In 1908, De Cora married a Carlisle student
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Angel De Cora (Ho-Chunk) taught arts at Carlisle
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Elaine Goodale Eastman, 1911
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Buffalo Hunt,Oglala Lakota), Carlisle, c. 1880
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Leupp Art Studio, Carlisle, 1907
Political context
Progressive Era fight for the image of Native Americans
From 1886 to the onset of World War I, Progressive Reformists fought a war of images with Wild West shows before the American public at world fairs, expositions and parades.[75] Pratt and other reformist progressives led an unsuccessful campaign to discourage Native Americans from joining Wild West shows. Reformist Progressives vigorously opposed to theatrical portrayals of Native Americans in popular Wild West shows and believed Wild West shows portrayed Native Americans as savages and vulgar stereotypes. Reformist progressives also believed Wild West shows exploited and demoralized Native Americans.
Other Progressives, such as "Buffalo Bill" Cody, who as Pratt believed Indians equals of whites, had a different approach. He allowed Indians to be Indians. New ideas were not to be thrust forcefully upon Native peoples. Cody believed Native Americans would observe modern life and different cultures, acquire new skills and customs, and change at their own pace and on their own terms. Both Pratt and Cody offered paths of opportunity and hope during time when people believed Native Americans were a vanishing race whose only hope for survival was rapid cultural transformation.[76] Notwithstanding his criticisms, Pratt invited his old friend Buffalo Bill Cody and his Wild West show to perform in Carlisle on June 24, 1898. The school paper "Red Man" reported that students were "privileged to witness the best exhibition of some rude manners and customs of the people of the western frontier in the fifties and sixties."[77]
During the Progressive Era of the late 19th and early 20th Centuries, there was an explosion of public interest in Native American culture and imagery. Newspapers, dime-store novels, Wild West shows and public exhibitions portrayed Native Americans as a "Vanishing Race." American and European anthropologists, historians, linguists, journalists, photographers, portraitists and early movie-makers believed time was of the essence to study western Native American peoples. Many researchers and artists lived on government reservations for extended periods to study Native Americans before they "vanished." Their inspired effort heralded the "Golden Age of the Wild West." Photographers included
During this period, U.S. Government policy focused upon acquiring Indian lands, restricting cultural and religious practices and sending Native American children to boarding schools. Progressives agreed that the situation was serious and that something needed to be done to educate and acculturate Native Americans to white society, but they differed as to education models and speed of assimilation. Reformist progressives, a coalition led by the Bureau of Indian Affairs, Native American educators and Christian organizations, promoted rapid assimilation of children through off-reservation Indian boarding schools and immersion in white culture.[76]
At Carlisle, Pratt developed a photographic record of the model school for publicity and documentation. The institution and the school were photographed during the school's existence by approximately a dozen professional photographers. The photographs evidenced that the school successfully acclimated Indians to the white man's culture.[79] The first and best known photographer of the Carlisle Indian Industrial School was John Nicolas Choate.[80] "After replacing Indian dress with military uniforms and cutting their hair in Anglo fashion, the Indians' physical appearance was transformed." Before and after "contrast" photos were sent to officials in Washington, charitable donors and to reservations to recruit new students.[31] "Pratt's powerful photographs showing his quick results helped persuade Washington that he was doing vital work.[81]
Society of American Indians
The Carlisle Indian School was a well-spring for the
Native Americans in mainstream culture at the time
World fairs and expositions
During the Progressive Era, from the late 19th century until the onset of World War I, Native American performers were major draws and money-makers. Millions of visitors at world fairs, exhibitions and parades throughout the United States and Europe observed Native Americans portrayed as the vanishing race, exotic peoples and objects of modern comparative anthropology.[84][85] Reformists Progressives fought a war of words and images against popular Wild West shows at world fairs, expositions and parades.
In 1893, the fight for the image of the Native American began when Reformist Progressives pressured organizers to deny
In style, Buffalo Bill established a fourteen-acre swath of land near the main entrance of the fair for "Buffalo Bill's Wild West and Congress of Rough Riders of the World" where he erected stands around an arena large enough to seat 18,000 spectators. Seventy-four "Wild Westers" from
The Inaugural Parade of President Theodore Roosevelt, 1905
On March 4, 1905, Wild Westers and Carlisle portrayed contrasting images of Native Americans at the First Inaugural Parade of 26th President
Theodore Roosevelt sat in the presidential box with his wife, daughter and other distinguished guests, and watched
Carlisle "Wild Westers"
The Carlisle Indian School and "
Frank C. Goings, the recruiting agent for
Closing and legacy
Pratt's retirement
Pratt came into conflict with government officials over his outspoken views on the need for Native Americans to assimilate. In 1903, Pratt denounced the Indian Bureau and the reservation system as a hindrance to the civilization and assimilation of Native Americans ("American Indians"). "Better, far better for the Indians," he said, "had there never been a Bureau." As a result of the controversy, Pratt was forced to retire as superintendent of Carlisle after 24 years and was placed on the retired list as a brigadier general in the United States Army.[104] In retirement, Pratt and his wife Anna Laura traveled widely, often visiting former students and lecturing and still writing on Indian issues.[105] Pratt continued to advocate for Native American rights until his death at the age of 83 on March 15, 1924, at the old Letterman Army Hospital in the Presidio of San Francisco, at San Francisco, California. Pratt's modest granite memorial stone in Arlington National Cemetery across the Potomac River from Washington, D.C. says "Erected In Loving Memory by his Students and Other Indians."[106]
Assimilation efforts at Carlisle
Carlisle was created with the explicit goal of assimilating Native Americans into mainstream European-American culture.[107] "The goal of acculturation was to be accomplished by "total immersion" in the white man's world."[108] Pratt founded Carlisle to immerse Native American children in mainstream culture and teach them English, new skills, and customs. Pratt's slogan was "to civilize the Indian, get him into civilization. To keep him civilized, let him stay."[109] Pratt's approach was harsh but an alternative to the commonly-held goal of extermination of Native Americans. A positive outcome of a Carlisle education was the student's increased multilingualism.[110]
While assimilation was a crucial part of the Carlisle School's plan, it was also looked at controversially by some
All children who attended Carlisle were subjected to "militaristic regimentation and disciplines," such as cutting of their hair, changing their dress, diets, names, and learning unfamiliar conceptions of space and time.[114] They were also forced to let go of their cultural gender roles, and assimilate to what white men believed they should do in society. Native women traditionally held important political, social and economic power within their communities, as most Native cultures promoted gender equality, and this was disrupted at Carlisle.[114]
The Documents Concerning Mary Welch, from the Carlisle Indian Digital Resource Center, provide validation of Welch's completion of seven years at the Carlisle school, and say that she would make a fine housekeeper or seamstress.[115] However, Welch was a member of the Cherokee Nation, whose women are known for speaking out against the colonization and expansionism of American settlers. Some Cherokee women also attained the rank of chief. "They were not, as Euro-Americans imagine, merely chattel, servants to man, wives, and mothers."[116] It wasn't uncommon for Native women to be warriors, statesmen, religious leaders, and shamans (the equivalent of doctors).[116] Carlisle instructors forced the women to learn the industrial and domestic skills appropriate to European American gender roles. For many of them, this cultural assault led to confusion, alienation, homesickness and resentment.[114]
During the first few weeks at Carlisle, when the Lakota and Dakota greatly outnumbered all other tribes, it was discovered that Cheyennes and Kiowas were learning to speak Lakota and Dakota. After that, English was the only language permitted on the campus. Dormitory rooms held three or four each, and no two students from the same tribe were permitted to room together. The plan helped in the rapid acquisition of English, and although some were hereditary foes, Pratt believed the Indian students to be less inclined to quarrel than most white children.
Back on the reservation
One student, Luther Standing Bear got a mixed reception at home on the reservation. Some were proud of his achievements while others did not like that he had "become a white man."[121] He was happy to be home, and some of his relatives said that he "looked like a white boy dressed in eastern clothes." Luther was proud to be compared to a white boy, but some would not shake his hand. Some returning Carlisle students had become ashamed of their culture, while some tried to pretend that they did not speak Lakota. The difficulties of returning Carlisle I.I.S. students disturbed white educators. Returning Carlisle students found themselves between two cultures, not accepted by either. Some rejected their educational experiences and "returned to the blanket," casting off "white ways"; others found it more convenient and satisfying to remain in white society. Most adjusted to both worlds.[122]
In 1905, Standing Bear decided to leave the reservation. He was no longer willing to endure existence under the control of an overseer.[123] Luther sold his land allotment and bought a house in Sioux City, Iowa, where he worked as a clerk in a wholesale firm.[124] After a brief job doing rodeo performances with Miller Brothers 101 Ranch in Oklahoma (former old Indian Territory), he moved to California to seek full-time employment in the motion picture industry.[125] While Standing Bear left the confinement of the reservation, he continued his responsibilities as an Oglala Lakota chief, fighting to preserve Lakota heritage and sovereignty through public education.
Deaths from infectious diseases
Exposure to "white men's diseases", especially tuberculosis, was a major health problem on the reservation as well as the East. During the years of operation, hundreds of children died at Carlisle. Most died from infectious diseases common in the early 20th century that killed many children. More than 180 students were buried in the Carlisle Indian School Cemetery. The bodies of most who died were sent to their families. Children who died of tuberculosis were buried at the school, as people were worried about contagion.[126]
20th century
Beginning in the early 1900s, the Carlisle Indian Industrial School began to diminish in relevance. With growth of more localized private and government
Around 1913, rumors circulated at Carlisle that there was a movement to close the school. In 1914, a
From 1879 until 1918, more than 10,000 Native American children from 140 tribes had attended Carlisle.
In the late 20th century, there was a reexamination of assimilation efforts by the U.S. government, and practices at Carlisle and other similar schools served as the basis for some of that reexamination. Some Native Americans criticized the break-up of their families for years as students were sent off to such boarding schools, and were seen as efforts to force children away from their families' cultures. Pratt's views on assimilation also were critized.[135]
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Jim Thorpe Sports Day is the biggest annual extracurricular event at theU.S. Army War College, Carlisle, Pennsylvania.
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In 1918, the Carlisle Indian Industrial School closed and the old historic Carlisle Barracks temporarily became U.S. Army Base Hospital No. 31 to treat soldiers wounded in World War I.
Contemporary institutions
U.S. Army Heritage and Education Center
The U.S. Army Heritage and Education Center (USAHEC), in Carlisle, Pennsylvania, is the U.S. Army's primary historical research facility. With its oldest part established in 1967, and later reorganized in 1999 and reorganized again in 2013, the center consists of the U.S. Army Military History Institute (U.S.A.M.H.I.) (of 1967), the Army Heritage Museum (A.H.M.), the Digital Archives Division, the Historical Services Division, the Research and Education Services, and the U.S.A.H.E.C. Staff. The U.S. Army Heritage and Education Center is part of the United States Army War College, but has its own 56-acre (230,000 m2) campus in Middlesex Township nearby the Carlisle Barracks.
U.S. Army War College—Jim Thorpe Sports Day
Jim Thorpe Sports Day is the biggest annual extracurricular event at the
Cumberland County Historical Society
The Carlisle Indian Industrial School is remembered and honored by the people of the
Carlisle Indian School Digital Resource Center
The Carlisle Indian School Digital Resource Center is a publicly accessible digital archive of material pertaining to the Carlisle Indian Industrial School. The project is run by the Archives and Special Collections Department of the Waidner-Spahr Library at Dickinson College, and by the Community Studies Center at Dickinson College. Additionally, the project is advised by a number of subject-area experts and cultural advisers. The project seeks to aggregate collections of primary source materials held at various repositories, including the National Archives and Records Administration, the Cumberland County Historical Society, and the Archives and Special Collections at Dickinson College.[138]
In media
- American Mutoscope and Biograph Company (AM&B) made in Carlisle. The cinematographer Arthur Marvin depicts a parade drill by the cadet corps of the American Indian School which includes many representatives of the Native American tribes. In 1902 Marvin produced another documentary, "Club Swinging at Carlisle Indian School" for AM&B.[139]
- Carlisle Indian Industrial School was depicted in the 1951 movie classic Glenn Scobey ("Pop") Warner, who was Thorpe's longtime mentor. Bickford also narrated the film, which told of Thorpe's athletic rise and fall, ending on an upbeat note when he was asked by a group of boys to coach them. Phyllis Thaxterportrayed Thorpe's first wife. Warner Bros. used a number of contract players in the film, as well as a few Native American actors.
- Part of the 2005 mini-series on cable TV's Into the West, takes place at the school.[141]
- The The American Experience, also produced by PBS. The documentary features interviews with Indian educators N. Scott Momaday and Henrietta Mann, as well as frontier historian Robert M. Utley and Professor of American studies Lonna Malmsheimer.[142]
- The "Dear America" Series young adult fictional diary, My Heart Is on the Ground by Ann Rinaldi (1999), tells the story of Nannie Little Rose, a Sioux girl sent to the school in 1880.[143]
- Numerous additional works address the stories of former residents of the Carlisle Indian Industrial School and other Native American boarding schools in Western New York and Canadian Indian residential school system such as Thomas Indian School, and Mohawk Institute Residential School in Brantford, Southern Ontario; the impact of those and similar schools on their communities; and community efforts to overcome those impacts. Examples include: the film Unseen Tears: A Documentary on Boarding School Survivors,[144] Ronald James Douglas' graduate thesis titled Documenting ethnic cleansing in North America: Creating Unseen Tears,[145] and the Legacy of Hope Foundation's online media collection: "Where are the Children? Healing the Legacy of the Residential Schools". Legacy of Hope Foundation.
- The memoir Apple: Skin to the Core by Eric Gansworth is a book in poems and images documenting the author's life as well as that of his extended Family.[146] Three of the author's grandparents attended Carlisle Indian Industrial School and the book details both the experience and the aftermath of their attendance there. Gansworth is an enrolled member of the Onondaga Nation, born and raised among the Tuscaroras.[147] The book was in the longlist of the National Book Awards 2020 for Young People's Literature.[148]
See also
Notes
- ^ a b "National Register Information System". National Register of Historic Places. National Park Service. July 9, 2010.
- ^ "PHMC Historical Markers". Historical Marker Database. Pennsylvania Historical & Museum Commission. Archived from the original on December 7, 2013. Retrieved December 20, 2013.
- ^ "Carlisle Indian School". National Historic Landmark summary listing. National Park Service. Archived from the original on May 29, 2009. Retrieved July 2, 2008.
- ^ Hunt, Darek. " BIA's Impact on Indian Education Is an Education in Bad Education." 30 Jan 2011. Retrieved 3 Nov 2013.
- OCLC 1090279399.
- ^ Dunbar-Ortiz, Roxanne. An Indigenous Peoples' History of the United States. Beacon Press: Boston, 2014, p. 151.
- ^ a b c Pratt (2003), pp. xi-xvi.
- ^ a b Hultgren, Mary Lou (1989). To lead and to serve: American Indian education at Hampton institute 1878-1923. Virginia Foundation for the Humanities and Public Policy, in cooperation with Hampton University.
- ^ Pratt, Richard Henry. Twenty-Second Annual Report: The Papers of the Society of American Indians. Juniata College: National Historical Publications and Records Commission.
- ^ Jenkins (2008), p. 57.
- ^ Witmer (1993), p. 11.
- ^ Witmer (1993), p. 3.
Pratt (2003), pp. 6–8. - ^ Eastman (1935), p. 77.
- ^ Witmer (1993), p. 17.
- ^ Bell, Telling Stories Out of School, Ph.D. dissertation, Stanford University, 1998, cited in Witmer (1993), pp. 75, 323 n. 31.
- ^ Witmer (1993), pp. 12–3.
- ^ Standing Bear (1975), pp. 136-8.
- ^ a b c Standing Bear (1975), p. xii.
- ^ Eastman (1935), p. 209.
Witmer (1993), p. 23. - ^ Eastman (1935), p. 232.
- ^ Witmer (1993), p. 13.
- ^ Pratt (2003), pp.222-4.
- ^ Herman J. Viola, "Diplomats in Buckskins: A History of Indian Delegations to Washington", (1981), p.50, citing "Annual Report of the Commissioner of Indian Affairs for 1880", p.viii.
- ^ Rensink, Brenden (2011). "Genocide of Native Americans: Historical Facts and Historiographic Debates". University of Nebraska.
- OCLC 55389.
- ^ OCLC 978555933.
- ^ Roberta Estes (September 25, 2013). "Chief American Horse, Sioux". Native Heritage Project. Retrieved February 2, 2021.
- ^ Witmer (1993), p. 15.
- ^ a b Witmer (1993), p. 25.
- ^ Witmer (1993), p. 115.
- ^ a b Witmer (1993), p. 24.
- ^ Eastman (1935), p. 216.
- ^ Jenkins (2008), p. 216.
- ^ Eastman (1935), p. 219.
- ^ Nancy Van Dolsen. "Carlisle 1880: A Historical Demographical Approach." Honors History diss., Dickinson College, 1982.
- ^ Witmer (1993), p. 47.
- ^ Jenkins (2008), p. 238.
- United States Constitution.
- ^ Pratt (2003), p. 316 noted that, "We had the advantage of contacting and contending with our distinguished neighbor, Dickinson College, with its more than a century of success in developing strong and eminent men to fill the highest places in our national life."
- ^ Dr. James Andrew McCauley, Professor Charles Francis Himes, Dr. George Edward Reed, Stephen Baird and Joshua Lippincott fostered the relationship between the institutions through religious services, advisory meetings, lectures and commencement speeches. See "Influence from the Faculty at Dickinson".
- ^ The presence of Native Americans on campus generated great interest among Dickinson students. Dickinson students enjoyed visiting the Indian School to offer their talents and services. Indeed, the October 24, 1896 "Dickinsonian" "On the Campus" section tells of the new volunteer Sunday School teachers from the college chapter of YMCA. It further declares that those who have Indian boys "enjoy a rare privilege. The work is doubly interesting because one can be studying the characteristics of his scholars, at the same time learning many valuable lessons in methods of teaching." In addition, at the time of the Indian School commencement, it was traditional for a half day holiday to be given so Dickinson students could attend the "very interesting exercises."
- ^ "History of Conway Hall - Dickinson College Wiki". Dickinson.
- ^ "The Indian Craftsman (Address by Dr. Geo. E. Reed, President of Dickinson College, May 1909)". The Carlisle Indian Press. Vol. 1, no. 4. 1909. p. 19. Reprint by Johnson Reprint (New York), 1971.
"The Red Man (Address by George Edward Reed, May 1913)". The Carlisle Indian Press. Vol. 5, no. 9. 1913. p. 400. Reprint by Johnson Reprint (New York), 1971). - ^ Charles Francis Himes, "The White Man's Way; Illustrated Talks on Scientific Subjects to "Indian Chiefs" on their Visits to the Carlisle Indian School." Read before the Historical Section of the Hamilton Library Association, Carlisle, PA. (Carlisle: Hamilton Library Association, 1916), 14.
See also "Charles Francis Himes (1838-1918)". Dickinson College - Archives & Special Collections.
Jenkins (2008), pp. 80-1. - ^ Standing Bear (1975), p. 155.
- , p. 30.
Carmelita A. Ryan, "The Carlisle Indian Industrial School" (Thesis, Georgetown University, 1962), p. 67. - ^ a b Witmer (1993), p. 29.
- ^ Standing Bear (1975), pp. 154–5.
- ^ Standing Bear (1933), p. v. The program worked in the East, but not the West.
- ^ a b Witmer (1993), p. 37.
- ^ Benjey (2008), p. 21.
- ^ Eastman (1935), p. 225.
- ^ Landis, Barbara. "Carlisle Indian Industrial School History".
Pratt (2003), pp. 275–6. - ^ Witmer (1993), p. 76.
- ^ a b Eastman (1935), p. 241.
- ^ Standing Bear (1975), p. 178.
- ^ Standing Bear (1975), p. 182.
- ^ Standing Bear (1975), p. 184.
- ^ Sally Jenkins, "Excerpt on Carlisle Indians", Sports Illustrated, April 23, 2007
- ^ Richmond, Sam (November 11, 2015). "Jim Thorpe leads Carlisle to upset of Harvard in 1911". National Collegiate Athletic Association. Retrieved August 29, 2018.
- ^ "Gridiron Guts: The Story of Football's Carlisle Indians". npr. May 19, 2007.
Jenkins (2008), p. 198. - ^ Jenkins (2008), pp. 2–6.
- ^ Jenkins (2008), p. 2.
- ^ Eastman (1935), p. 212.
- ^ Standing Bear (1975), p. 149.
- ISBN 9780761352570.
- ISBN 978-1-57607-101-4.
- ^ Witmer (1993), p. 77.
- ^ a b Leupp, Francis E. (May 4, 1905). "Improvement, Not Transformation". The Arrow. Vol. 1, no. 36. See also in epix.net.
- ^ Witmer (1993), pp. 78–9.
- ^ Witmer (1993), p. 31.
- ^ Jane E. Simonsen. Making Home Work: Domesticity and Native American Assimilation. 2006: 203–208.
Shope, Suzanne Alene (2009). American Indian Artist Angel DeCora: Aesthetics, Power, and Transcultural Pedagogy in the Progressive Era (PDF) (Doctor of Education). The University of Montana. Archived from the original (PDF) on November 4, 2013. - ^ Witmer (1993), p. 120.
- ^ Witmer (1993), p. 78-80.
- ^ Moses (1999), p. 133: "It was one thing to portray docile natives who had not progressed much since the late fifteenth century, but quite another matter to portray some of them as armed and dangerous." Indian Commissioner John H. Oberly explained in 1889: "The effect of traveling all over the country among, and associated with, the class of people usually accompanying shows, circuses and exhibitions, attended by all the immoral and unchristianizing surroundings incident to such a life, is not only most demoralizing to the present and future welfare of the Indian, but it creates a roaming and unsettled disposition and educates him in a manner entirely foreign and antagonistic to that which has been and now is the policy of the Government. Moses (1999), p. 69.
- ^ a b Heppler, Jason A. (2011). Buffalo Bill's Wild West and the Progressive Image of American Indians. Buffalo Bill's Wild West and the Progressive Image of American Indians is a collaborative project of the Buffalo Bill Historical Center and the University of Nebraska-Lincoln Department of History with the assistance from the Center for Digital Research in the Humanities at the University of Nebraska-Lincoln.
- ^ Joel Phister, "Individually Incorporated Indians and the Multicultural Modern", (2004), p.72.
- ^ Parezo & Fowler (2007), p.6.
- ^ Witmer (1993), p. 113.
- ^ Witmer (1993), p. 115.
Laura Turner,"John Nicholas Choate and the Production of Photography at the Carlisle Indian School" at http://chronicles.dickinson.edu/studentwork/indian/4_choate.htm - ^ Jenkins (2008), p. 82.
- ^ Jenkins (2008), p. 276.
- ^ "Charles Eastman as seen through the Carlisle Indian School Newspapers".
- ^ David R.M. Beck, "The Myth of the Vanishing Race", Associate Professor, Native American Studies, University of Montana, February, 200.
- ^ a b Moses (1999), pp. 131, 140.
- JSTOR 1184042.
- ^ Moses (1991), pp. 210–5.
- ^ Parezo & Fowler (2007), p. 6.
Moses (1999), pp. 137–8. - ^ Indians performing included Oglala Lakotas from Pine Ridge Reservation with Cummins's Wild West Show and Brulé Lakotas from Rosebud Reservation with the Department of Anthropology. Parezo & Fowler (2007), p.131.
- ^ Parezo & Fowler (2007), p. 134.
- ^ Parezo & Fowler (2007), p. 135-6, 354, 459. J. McGee portrayed contrasting images of Native Americans and was critical of BIA programs destroying Native cultures and turning Indians into "counterfeit Caucasians."
- ^ Parezo & Fowler (2007), p. 156.
- ^ A week or so before the inauguration, six famous chiefs from formerly hostile tribes, arrived in Carlisle to head the school's contingent in the parade. But, before they left for Washington, there was much to do. First, they spoke to an assembly of students through interpreters. A dress rehearsal was held on the main street of Carlisle to practice for the parade. The "Carlisle Herald" predicted that the group would be one of the big parade's star attractions. Those marching in the parade were woken at 3:45 a.m., had breakfast at 4:30, and were the special train to Washington at 5:30. As the train rolled out of Carlisle, a heavy snow fell, but later the sun burned through, making for a fine day weather-wise. Fortunately, the travelers had lunch on the train because it was late in arriving in Washington. They were hurried into the last division of the Military Grand Division. Originally, they were to have been in the Civic Grand Division, but Gen. Chaffee transferred all cadets under arms to the military division, putting them in a separate brigade. "Carlisle Indian School - 1905 Inaugural Parade". Tom Benjey. 2009.
- ^ Binkovitz, Leah (January 16, 2013). "Who were the six Indian Chiefs in Teddy Roosevelt's Inaugural Parade?". smithsonianmag.com. "They were Quanah Parker of the Comanche, Buckskin Charlie from the Ute, Hollow Horn Bear and American Horse of the Sioux, Little Plume from the Blackfeet and the Apache warrior Geronimo. As they rode through the streets of Washington on horseback, despite criticism, Roosevelt applauded and waved his hat in appreciation."
- ISBN 9780300198362.
- ^ "Carlisle Indian School - 1905 Inaugural Parade". Tom Benjey. 2009.
Witmer (1993), p. 26. - ^ Boorn (2005), p. 1.
- ^ Moses (1991), p. 219.
- ^ a b Boorn (2005), p. 131.
- ^ Boorn (2005), p. 6.
- ^ Witmer (1993), p. xv.
Boorn (2005), pp. 101–3. - ^ Boorn (2005), p. 8.
- ^ Boorn (2005), pp. 101–3.
- ^ Pratt (2003), pp. xi-xv.
Standing Bear (1933), p. xx. - ^ Jenkins (2008), pp. 216–7.
- ^ Pratt (2003), p. xv.
Standing Bear (1933), p. xx. - ^ Witmer (1993), p. xiv.
- ^ a b Witmer (1993), cover.
- ^ Phillip Earenfight. "Introduction". Chronicles of Dickinson University. Retrieved February 2, 2021.
- ^ Boorn (2005), p. 118.
- ISBN 9780803257351. Retrieved April 17, 2017.
- ^ Wasaquam, Isaiah. "Isaiah Wasaquam Student File". Carlisle Indian School Digital Resource Center. Retrieved April 19, 2017.
- S2CID 162325934.
- ^ JSTOR 25163421.
- ^ "Mary Welch Student File". Carlisle Indian Digital Resource Center. Retrieved April 18, 2017.
- ^ JSTOR 3346212.
- ^ Eastman (1935), p. 206.
- ^ The Wild West show notes of interest About the Exhibition and Buffalo Bill's Visitors", Philadelphia Inquirer, August 21, 1888.
- ^ Standing Bear (1975), p. 189.
- ISBN 9780142437094. The policy of forbidding students to speak in their native tongue "Kill the Indian in him, and save the man," provided the philosophical foundation of his program.[page needed]
- ^ Agonito (2011), p. 241.
- ^ Standing Bear (1933), p. xx.
- ^ Standing Bear (1975), p. xviii.
- ^ Agonito (2011), p. 247.
- ^ Phillip A. Greasily, "Dictionary of Midwestern Literature, Volume 1: The Authors, (2001), p.472.
- ^ Witmer (1993), p. 16.
- ^ Witmer (1993), pp. 59, 89.
Jenkins (2008), p. 299. - ^ Witmer (1993), p. 89.
Jenkins (2008), p. 292. - ^ Witmer (1993), p. 90.
- ^ Witmer (1993), p. 89.
- ^ "Annual Report U.S. Indian School Carlisle PA" (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on February 15, 2021. Retrieved February 8, 2021.
- ^ The total number of students is listed as 10,595, with 1,842 list of names and nation unknown. See Carlisle Indian School Tribal Enrollment Tally (1879-1918).
- ^ Benjey (2008), p. 6.
- ^ Witmer (1993), p. xvi.
Jenkins (2008), p. 198. - ISBN 9780142437094. The policy of forbidding students to speak in their native tongue, as part of his "Kill the Indian in him, and save the man," provided the philosophical foundation of his program.
- ^ Benjey (2008), p. ii.
- ^ Witmer, Linda F. (2002). The Indian Industrial School, Carlisle, Pennsylvania, 1879-1918. Carlisle PA: Cumberland County Historical Society.
Landis, Barbara. "Carlisle Indian Industrial School (1879-1918)".
Anderson, Stephanie (May 2000). "On Sacred Ground: Commemorating Survival and Loss at the Carlisle Indian School". Central PA Magazine. - ^ "Mission | Carlisle Indian School Digital Resource Center". carlisleindian.dickinson.edu. Retrieved April 19, 2017.
- ^ Joanna Hearne, Native Recognition: Indigenous Cinema and the Western (2012) p 372
- ^ Mark Rubinfeld, "The mythical Jim Thorpe: Re/presenting the twentieth century American Indian." The International Journal of the History of Sport 23.2 (2006): 167-189, quote p 176.
- ^ Hoffman (2012), p. 134.
- ^ Hoffman (2012), p.120.
- ^ Marlene Atleo, et al. "A critical review of Ann Rinaldi's My Heart Is on the Ground: The diary of Nannie Little Rose, a Sioux girl." Multicultural Education 7.1 (1999): 34+.
- ^ "Unseen Tears: A Documentary on Boarding School Survivors". Films for action. 2009.
- ProQuest 757916758.
- ISBN 9781646140138.
- ^ "Eric Gansworth". ericgansworth-new. Retrieved December 12, 2020.
- ^ "Apple (Skin to the Core)". National Book Foundation. Retrieved December 12, 2020.
References
- Adams, David Wallace (1997). Education for Extinction: American Indians and the Boarding School Experience 1875–1928. University of Kansas Press. ISBN 978-0-7006-0838-6.
- Agonito, Joseph (2011). Lakota Portraits: Lives of the Legendary Plains People. Rowman & Littlefield. ISBN 9780762768295.
- Anderson, Lars (2007). Carlisle vs. Army: Jim Thorpe, Dwight Eisenhower, Pop Warner, and the Forgotten Story of Football's Greatest Battle. Random House. ISBN 978-1-4000-6600-1.
- Benjey, Tom (2008). Doctors, Lawyers, Indian Chiefs: Jim Thorpe and Pop Warner's Carlisle Indian School Football Immortals Tackle Socialites, Bootleggers, Students, Moguls... Tuxedo Press. ISBN 9780977448678.
- Boorn, Alida S. (2005). Oskate Wicasa (One Who Performs). Central Missouri State University.
- LCCN 35021899.
- Fear-Segal, Jaqueline. "Nineteenth-Century Indian Education: Universalism Versus Evolutionism", Journal of American Studies, 33#2 (1999): 323–341.
- Fear-Segal, Jaqueline, ed., with Susan D. Rose. Carlisle Indian Industrial School: Indigenous Histories, Memories, and Reclamations (University of Nebraska Press, 2016). xiv, 398 pp
- Fear-Segal, Jacqueline (2007). White Man's Club: Schools and the Struggle of Indian Acculturation. Lincoln NA: Nebraska Univ. Press. ISBN 9780803220249.
- Hoffman, Elizabeth DeLaney, ed. (February 22, 2012). American Indians and Popular Culture. Two volumes. ABC-CLIO. ISBN 9780313379918.
- Jenkins, Sally (2008). The Real All Americans: The Team That Changed a Game, a People, a Nation. Broadway Books. ISBN 9780767926249.
- Mauro, H.P., 2011. The Art of Americanization at the Carlisle Indian School. Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press.
- Moses, Lester George (1991). Indians on the Midway: Wild West Shows and the Indian Bureau at World's Fairs, 1893–1904. South Dakota State Historical Society.
- Moses, Lester George (1999) [1996]. Wild West Shows and the Images of American Indians, 1883-1933. illustrated, reprint. ISBN 9780826320896.
- Daniel E. Witte and Paul Mero, "Removing Classrooms from the Battlefield: Liberty, Paternalism, and the Redemptive Promise of Educational Choice" Archived September 16, 2012, at the Wayback Machine, 2008 Brigham Young University Law Review 377
Primary sources
- Leahy, Todd, and Nathan Wilson, eds. "My First Days At The Carlisle Indian School By Howard Gansworth An Annotated Manuscript." Pennsylvania History 71.4 (2004): 479–493; memoir of alumnus of 1894. He praised Carlisle's influence; Gansworth (Seneca-Tuscarora, from New York) later took two degrees at Princeton University. He became a successful businessman in Buffalo, New York, and a leader in Indian affairs. online
- Parezo, Nancy J.; Fowler, Don D. (2007). The 1904 Louisiana Purchase Exposition: Anthropology Goes to the Fair. Univ. of Nebraska Press. ISBN 9780803213944.
- Pratt, Richard Henry (1979) [1908]. The Indian Industrial School - Carlisle, Pennsylvania - Its origins, purposes, progress, and the difficulties surmounted. Carlisle, PA: Cumberland County Historical Society.
- Pratt, Richard Henry (1983). How to deal with the Indians: the potency of environment. Washington D.C.: Library of Congress Photoduplication Service.
- Pratt, Richard Henry (2003). Battlefield and classroom: four decades with the American Indian, 1867–1904. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press. ISBN 9780806136035.
- Richard Henry Pratt Papers. Yale Collection of Western Americana, Beinecke Rare Book and Manuscript Library.
- Standing Bear, Luther (1933). Land of the Spotted Eagle. Univ. of Nebraska Press. ISBN 0803258909.
- Standing Bear, Luther (1975) [1928]. Brininstool, E.A. (ed.). My People the Sioux. illustrated, reprint. Univ. of Nebraska Press. ISBN 9780803257931.
- Witmer, Linda F. (1993). The Indian Industrial School, Carlisle, Pennsylvania, 1879–1918. Carlisle PA: Cumberland County Historical Society. ISBN 978-0-9638923-0-0.
External links
- Carlisle Indian Industrial School Graduates 1889–1895
- Carlisle Indian Industrial School, Archives & Special Collections, Waidner-Spahr Library, Dickinson College.
- Carlisle Indian Industrial School from the Flickr Commons.
- "Carlisle Indian School", Cumberland County Historical Society.
- Carlisle Indian School Digital Resource Center
- "Carlisle Indian Industrial School Photograph Collection" US Army Heritage and Education Center, Carlisle Barracks, Pennsylvania.
- [1] Carlisle Indian Industrial School, (1879-1918). Barbara Landis, Carlisle Indian School Biographer. ]
- Richard Henry Pratt Papers. Yale Collection of Western Americana, Beinecke Rare Book and Manuscript Library.
- Doctors, Lawyers, Indian Chiefs. Tuxedo Press. 2008. ISBN 978-0-9774486-7-8. Life stories of 50 Carlisle Indian School football players.
- Federal Indian Boarding School Initiative Investigative Report, US Department of Interior, May 2022
- "Fort Marion Artists", Smithsonian Institution