Carlism

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Carlist flag from the Third Carlist War (c. 1875), with the Carlist motto Dios, patria y rey ("God, Fatherland and King")

Carlism (

Legitimist political movement in Spain aimed at establishing an alternative branch of the Bourbon dynasty[1] – one descended from Don Carlos, Count of Molina (1788–1855) – on the Spanish throne
.

The movement was founded as a consequence of an early nineteenth-century dispute over the succession of the Spanish monarchy and widespread dissatisfaction with the Alfonsine line of the House of Bourbon, and subsequently found itself becoming a notable element of Spanish conservatism in its nineteenth-century struggle against liberalism, which repeatedly broke out into military conflicts known as the Carlist Wars.

It was at its strongest in the 1830s but experienced a revival following Spain's defeat in the Spanish–American War in 1898, when the Spanish Empire lost its last remaining significant overseas territories of the Philippines, Cuba, Guam, and Puerto Rico to the United States.[2]

Carlism continued to play a notable role in the twentieth century as part of the Nationalist faction in the Spanish Civil War and the subsequently triumphant Francoist regime until the return of democracy in 1975. Carlism continues to survive as a minor party:

Objectively considered, Carlism appears as a political movement. It arose under the protection of a dynastic flag that proclaimed itself "legitimist", and that rose to the death of

Ferdinand VII
, in the year 1833, with enough echo and popular roots, [...] they distinguish in it three cardinal bases that define it:
a) A dynastic flag: that of legitimacy.
b) A historical continuity: that of Las Españas.
c) And a legal-political doctrine: the traditionalist.

— ¿Qué es el Carlismo?[3]

Origins

The dynastic issue

Systems of succession in dispute

Traditionally, all but one of the Spanish kingdoms allowed the succession of daughters in the absence of sons and of sisters in the absence of brothers (

Siete partidas
) of the late 13th century.

On 1 November 1700 a French Bourbon prince,

agnatic descent from Philip, in any branch, became extinct. It is not implausible that this change might have been enacted at the insistence of a hostile foreign power, as the scenario of such a union could impinge profoundly on questions of national importance (particularly among states that preferred to maintain their distance from policy positions occupied by the Franco-Spanish consensus, of which the Holy Roman Empire
was one). Some disagreement on this topic was evident for a number of years, even after it became clear that any question of a Franco-Spanish union was a political non-starter.

Although the Spanish government made several attempts to revert to the traditional order, as in the Decree of 1789 by

Infante Carlos, who until then had been heir presumptive
.

Many contemporaries (starting with the King's brother and the cadet

Isabella II
.

Historical timeline

Political landscape after the death of Ferdinand VII (1833)

Satire was used in attempts to discredit the opposition, whether Liberal or Royalist (Carlist)

As in many European countries, after the

French Revolution
.

The long war for Spain's independence from the Napoleonic Empire left a large supply of experienced

Napoleon left also a broad, if unconscious, belief in the validity of the right of rebellion, with long-lasting effects on the politics of Spain and Spanish America
, extending through the 19th century and beyond.

The reign of

"pronunciamiento", but was followed by the Ominous Decade
(1823–1833), ten years of absolute rule by the king, that left bitter memories of persecution in both parties.

While in power, both groups had divided themselves into moderate and radical branches. The radical branch of the absolutists (or royalists), known as the Apostólicos, looked upon the heir presumptive,

Don Carlos
, as its natural head, as he was profoundly devout and, especially after 1820, staunchly anti-liberal.

In 1827, Catalonia was shaken by the rebellion of the Agreujats or Agraviados ("the Aggrieved"), an ultra-absolutist movement, which, for a time, controlled large parts of the region. The infante was for the first time then hailed as king. He denied any involvement.

The last years of King Ferdinand saw a political realignment due to the troubles surrounding his succession. In October 1832, the King formed a moderate royalist government under

Princess of Asturias
.

Moreover, the first years of the 1830s were influenced by the failure of the

French Restoration, which meant the end of Bourbon rule in France, and the civil war in Portugal
between both legitimist and liberal parties.

Social and economic factors

Two typical Carlists of the 19th century: Francisco Solà i Madriguera, of Taradell (Osona), with his son, around 1870.

Besides this political evolution, the years before the Carlist wars were marked by a deep economic crisis in Spain, partly spurred by the loss of the continental American provinces, and by the bankruptcy of the state. The last triggered enhanced tax pressures which further fueled social unrest.

Certain economic measures proposed by the Liberals (such as the

Church property, initiated in 1821) were directly threatening the viability of many small farms, whose residents were accustomed to rely on the common pasture lands to feed, at little or no cost, their mules and oxen. Widespread poverty followed, as did the closure of most hospitals, schools and other charities.[citation needed
]

An important factor was the 'religious' question. The radical liberals (progresistas) after 1820 had grown more and more

Catholic) Spanish people, especially in rural areas.[citation needed
]

The only institution abolished in the "Liberal Triennium" that was not restored by Ferdinand VII was the Inquisition. One of the demands of the radical absolutist party was its reinstitution. Liberals had been, while in power, quite doctrinaire, pursuing centralization and uniform administration.

Besides the Basque Country, in many regions of Spain there were intense particularist feelings, which were thus hurt. While only a secondary factor at the outbreak of the first Carlist war, this anti-uniformist localism, exemplified in the defence of the

Nueva Planta Decrees
.

History

The history of Carlism can be usefully divided into four different stages,[citation needed] whose dates are only approximate (thus the overlap is intentional):

  • 1833–1876: factions pursued power mainly by military means.
  • 1876–1936: Carlism reverted to a peaceful political movement.
  • 1936–1975: During the Spanish Civil War, Carlists were part of Franco's coalition. During the Franco regime, some government ministers were drawn from Franco's Carlist supporters, but the movement as a whole was gradually marginalized by the generalissimo.
  • 1975–present: After Franco's death, the Carlist movement declines into near irrelevance.

Carlist Wars (1833–1876)

Don Carlos calling the Navarrese in 1833.
Attack on the bridge of Luchana, near Bilbao during the first war.
Guetaria
in the first war.
1846 rendition of the executions ordered by Maroto in Estella (1839)
Chapelgorris in Miranda de Ebro

The period of the Carlist Wars, during which the party tried to attain power mainly through military means, is both classical Carlism, because the wars – or the threat of them – placed Carlism on the centre stage of Spain's political history, and formative, as Carlism evolved the cultural and sociological form it would retain for well over a hundred years.

Historical highlights of this era are the:

  • Carlos de Borbón
    (or Carlos V). The Carlists' goal was the return to an absolute monarchy. Portugal, France and the United Kingdom supported the regency, and sent volunteer and even regular forces to confront the Carlist army.
  • Luisa Fernanda
    .
  • Francisco de Borbón
    .
  • The 1860 expedition and its aftermath. That year the Count of Montemolín tried to seize power through a
    Maria Theresa of Braganza, Princess of Beira
    ; and
  • The "
    Carlos VII
    , became the rallying point for many political Catholics and conservatives, becoming the main bloc of right-wing opposition to the ensuing governments in Spain. After four years of political activity, and some hesitation, the martial option was again tried in
  • The Third Carlist War (1872–1876).

Points of convergence

All three wars share a common development pattern:[citation needed]

  1. A first stage of guerrilla activity, across all of Spain.
  2. A second stage of territorial resistance is created, with regular army units created. The 1847 war did not get further than this.
  3. A third stage of territorial stability achieved through conventional leads to the creation of State structures. No Carlist war went further than this.

At the beginning of each war, no regular army unit was on the Carlist side, and only the third was the result of a planned uprising.

The first war was noteworthy for being, on both sides, extremely brutal. The Liberal army mistreated the population, most of whom it suspected of being Carlist sympathizers, to the point of, sometimes, attempted extermination;[

rules of war, namely the "Lord Eliot Convention". Brutality did not disappear completely, and giving no quarter to one's enemy was not uncommon.[citation needed
]

The areas over which Carlism could establish some sort of territorial authority during the first war (Navarre,

Rioja
, the rural Basque Country, inner Catalonia and northern Valencia) would remain the main bulwarks of Carlism throughout its history, although there were active supporters of the movement everywhere else in Spain. Especially in Navarre, Asturias, and parts of the Basque Provinces Carlism remained a significant political force until the late 1960s.

Carlist military leaders
  • Tomás de Zumalacárregui
    Tomás de Zumalacárregui
  • Ramón Cabrera
    Ramón Cabrera
  • Manuel Santa Cruz
    Manuel Santa Cruz

Carlists in peace (1868–1936)

Main articles: Electoral Carlism (Restoration) and Electoral Carlism (Second Republic)
See also: Traditionalist Communion

The loss of prestige and subsequent fall of Isabel II in 1868, plus the staunch support of Carlism by Pope

Antonio Aparisi,[5] Cándido Nocedal, Alejandro Pidal
) to join the Carlist cause. For a time, even beyond the start of the third war (1872), it became the most important, and best organized, "right-wing" opposition group to the revolutionary regime, with some 90 members of parliament in 1871.

After the defeat,[clarification needed] a group (led by Alejandro Pidal) left Carlism to form a moderate, non-dynastic Catholic party in Spain, which later merged with the conservatives of Antonio Cánovas del Castillo.

In 1879 Cándido Nocedal was charged with the reorganization of the party. His main weapon was a very aggressive press (in 1883 Pope

integrist"). This tendency became so radical that in 1888, Carlos VII had to expel the group centred around Ramón Nocedal, Cándido's son, which thus gave rise to another small, but in clerical circles influential, Integrist Party
.

Jaime III and Francisco de Melgar, conde de Melgar del Rey
.

Meanwhile,

except Navarre
, achieved little success.

From 1893 to 1918, Juan Vázquez de Mella was its most important parliamentary leader and ideologue, seconded by Víctor Pradera, who had wide influence on Spanish conservative thinking beyond the party.

Franz Josef, and was also Head of the House of Bourbon, he favoured the Allies, but was living under house arrest in Austria, at Schloss Frohsdorf, with almost no communication with the political leadership in Spain.[citation needed] As the war ended and Don Jaime could again freely communicate with Spain, a crisis erupted, and Vázquez de Mella and others had to leave the party's leadership (the so-called "Mellists
").

In 1920, Carlism helped to found the "Sindicatos Libres" (Catholic Labour Unions) to counter the increased influence of leftist trade unions over the working class, clinging to a difficult balance between labour claims and the interests of the upper-class, to whom Carlism was so attached.

Miguel Primo de Rivera's dictatorship (1923–1930) was opposed but ambiguously viewed by Carlism, which, like most parties, entered a period of slumber, only to be awakened by the coming of the Second Republic in 1931. In the run-up to the proclamation of the Republic, the Carlists got together with the re-founded Basque Nationalist Party within the pro-charters Coalición Católico Fuerista in the core areas of Carlism, the Basque region, thus providing the springboard for the draft Basque Statute.

In October 1931, Carlist claimant to the Spanish throne

Duke Jaime died. He was succeeded by the 82-year-old claimant Alfonso Carlos de Borbón, reuniting under him the integralists led by Olazábal
and the "Mellists". They represented a region-based Spanish nationalism with an entrenched identification of Spain and Catholicism. The ensuing radicalized Carlist scene overshadowed the "Jaimists" with a Basque inclination. The Basque(-Navarrese) Statute failed to take off over disagreements on the centrality of Catholicism in 1932, with the new Carlist party Comunión Tradicionalista opting for an open confrontation with the Republic. The Republic established a secular approach of the regime, a division of Church and state, as well as freedom of cults, as France did in 1905, an approach traditionalists could not stand.

The Comunión Tradicionalista (1932) showed an ultra-Catholic, anti-secular position, and plotted for a military takeover, while adopting far-right apocalyptic views and talking of a final clash with an alliance of alleged anti-Christian forces. The most extreme proponent of these views was

Marx link and a bridgehead laid over Spain was being cited in the far-right circles to found these claims.[7]

In Navarre, the main Carlist stronghold, the movement revolved around the newspaper El Pensamiento Navarro, read almost exclusively by the clergy and second in circulation to El

namesake party leader) and other Jaimist young members organized arms smuggling from Eibar to distribute them among "defence" parties called Decurias, counting on the financing of wealthy personalities (big landowners, etc.). In 1932, the first coup d'état attempt took place against the Republic in the Sanjurjada, with a Carlist inspiration.[8]

The

Manuel Fal Condé taking over from young Carlists clustering around the AET (Jaime del Burgo and Mario Ozcoidi) in their pursuit to overthrow the Republic. The Carlists started to prepare for an armed definite clash with the Republic and its different leftist groups. From the initial defensive Decurias of Navarre (deployed in party seats and churches), the Requeté grew into a well-trained and strongest offensive paramilitary group in Spain when Manuel Fal Condé took the reins. It numbered 30,000 red berets (8,000 in Navarre and 22,000 in Andalusia).[9]

Spanish Civil War and Franco regime (1936–1975)

During the war (1936–1939)

The Valle de los Caídos near Madrid, built by Republican prisoners of war used as forced labour
Monastery of Irache, where General Mola held preparatory conspiracy meetings with Carlist leader Manuel Fal Conde and other plotters (July 1936)
The San Cristóbal fortress-turned-prison, home to one of the darkest episodes of the Civil War in Navarre

The Carlist militia, the

General Mola, known for his openness on his no-holds-barred, criminal approach,[11][12]
had just been relocated away to Pamplona by the Republican authorities, ironically to the very heart of the far-right rebellion.

In May 1936, the General met with

Falangist) almost broke the understanding for a Carlist allegiance to the coup on 4 July 1936. However, rebellious cooperation against the legitimate Republican government was restored by the intervention of Tomás Domínguez Arévalo
, count of Rodezno.

The highest Carlist authority, Duke Alfonso Carlos, did not approve of the pact, but all the same, by then Mola was negotiating directly with the Carlist Navarre Council (Junta Navarra), one that opted for the support of the uprising. On 19 July, the state of war was declared in Pamplona and the Carlist corps (tercio) in the city took over. In a few days, just about all of Navarre was occupied by the military and the

Requetés
. There was no front.

Immediately the rebels, with a direct participation of the Requetés and the clergy (the Carlist core in Navarre), engaged in a brutal repression to stamp out dissent that affected all inconvenient, mildly progressive, or Basque nationalist inhabitants and personalities. The killing in the rearguard took a direct death toll (extrajudicial executions) ranging from 2,857[11] to 3,000[13] to c. 4,000. A bleak scene of social humiliation and submission ensued for those surviving.

The Carlists' prospects in Gipuzkoa and Biscay were not auspicious. The military coup failed, and Carlist units were overwhelmed by forces loyal to the Republic, i.e. different leftist forces and the Basque nationalists. Many crossed the front line to make themselves safe in the rebel zone, and added to the Carlist regiments in Álava and Navarre. Pamplona became the rebel launching point for the War in the North.

On 8 December 1936, Fal Conde had to leave temporarily for Portugal after a major clash with Franco. On 19 April 1937 the Carlist political bloc was "unified" with the Falange under the pro-Franco, umbrella nationalist party, Falange Española Tradicionalista de las Juntas de Ofensiva Nacional Sindicalista or FET de las JONS. Unwilling to leave the Nationalist movement, but unhappy with the merger, the new Carlist claimant Javier, prince de Borbón-Parma, condemned those Carlists who joined the new party.

He was expelled from the country, while Fal Conde was not allowed to return to Spain until after the war. Low-level Carlists, with the notable exception of those in Navarre, generally distanced themselves from the workings of the new party and in many cases never joined at all.[14]

Francoist Spain

Henceforth, the mainstream kept an uncomfortable minority position inside the regime, more often than not at odds with its official policy, although the Ministry of Justice was thrice given to a loyal "Carlist" (who was accordingly expelled from the Traditionalist Communion). This time was also marred by the problem of succession and internal strife over Francoism.

Carlist ministers in Franco's August 1939 cabinet included General José Enrique Varela at army, and Esteban Bilbao at justice.[15] At the same time, two of nine seats in the Junta Política were given to Carlists. Of the hundred-member National Council of the FET, seven seats were occupied by Carlists.[16]

Carlists continued to clash with Falangists, notably in an incident at Bilbao's Basilica of Begoña on 16 August 1942. Accounts of the violence vary, but a Carlist rally (where some allegedly shouted anti-Franco slogans) was targeted by two grenades hurled by Falangists.[citation needed] While alleged fatalities and the number of those injured have long been disputed, the incident led to a shakeup of the Franco cabinet and the judicial conviction of six Falangists (one, Juan José Domínguez, was executed for the crime).[17]

In 1955 Fal Conde resigned as Jefe Delegado of the movement and was replaced by José María Valiente, who formally assumed the title in 1960. The change marked a shift from opposition to collaboration with Francoism, and the rapprochement ended in 1968 when Valiente left office.

Franco recognized both the titles of nobility conceded by the Carlist claimants and those of the Isabelline branch. At his death, the movement was badly split, and unable to get wide public attention again.

In 1971,

Don Sixto Enrique de Borbón-Parma, of aiding the militants, which collaboration the Traditionalist Communion denies.[18]

Tourist sign to the Museum of Carlism in Estella

The Post-Franco period (1975–present)

In the first democratic elections on 15 June 1977, only one Carlist senator was elected, journalist and writer Fidel Carazo from Soria, who ran as an independent candidate. In the parliamentary elections of 1979, rightist Carlists integrated in the far-right coalition Unión Nacional, which won a seat in the Cortes for Madrid; but the elected candidate was not himself a Carlist. The Carlists have since remained extra-parliamentary, obtaining only town council seats.

In 2002 Carlos Hugo donated the House's archives to the

Archivo Histórico Nacional, which was protested by his brother Don Sixto Enrique and by all Carlist factions.[citation needed
]

Currently, there are three political organizations which claim the Carlist identity:

Carlist claimants to the throne

The regnal numbers are those used by their supporters. While they were not proclaimed kings, they made use of some titles associated with the Spanish throne.[citation needed]

Claimant Portrait Birth Marriages Death
Carlos, Count of Molina
(Carlos V)
(English: Charles V)
1833–1845		 29 March 1788, Aranjuez
son of Carlos IV
and Maria Luisa of Parma
Maria Teresa, Princess of Beira

1838
No children		 10 March 1855
Trieste
aged 66
Carlos, Count of Montemolin
(Carlos VI)
(English: Charles VI)
1845–1861		 31 January 1818, Madrid
son of Carlos, Count of Molina
and Maria Francisca of Portugal
Maria Carolina of Bourbon-Two Sicilies

10 July 1850
No children		 31 January 1861
Trieste
aged 43
Juan, Count of Montizón
(Juan III)
(English: John III)
1860–1868		 15 May 1822, Aranjuez
son of Carlos, Count of Molina
and Maria Francisca of Portugal		 Beatrix of Austria-Este
6 February 1847
2 children
Ellen Sarah Carter
?
2 children		 21 November 1887
Hove
aged 65
Carlos, Duke of Madrid
(Carlos VII)
(English: Charles VII)
1868–1909		 30 March 1848, Ljubljana
son of Juan, Count of Montizón
and Beatrix of Austria-Este
Berthe de Rohan

28 April 1894
No children		 18 July 1909
Varese
aged 61
Jaime, Duke of Madrid
(Jaime III)
(English: James III)
1909–1931		 27 June 1870, Vevey
son of Carlos, Duke of Madrid
and Margarita of Bourbon-Parma		 never married 2 October 1931
Paris
aged 61
Alfonso Carlos, Duke of San Jaime
(Alfonso Carlos I)
(English: Alphonse Charles I)
1931–1936		 12 September 1849
London
son of Juan, Count of Montizón
and Beatrix of Austria-Este		 Maria das Neves of Portugal
26 April 1871
1 child		 29 September 1936
Vienna
aged 87

The succession after Alfonso Carlos

At the death of Alfonso Carlos in 1936 most Carlists supported Prince Xavier of Bourbon-Parma whom Alfonso Carlos had named as regent of the Carlist Communion.

A minority of Carlists supported Archduke Karl Pius of Austria, Prince of Tuscany, a grandson through the female line of Carlos VII.

A fringe movement of Carlists supported Alfonso XIII, the exiled constitutional king of Spain, who was the senior male descendant of King Charles IV. The majority of Carlists, however, considered Alfonso disqualified because he did not share the Carlist ideals (and, importantly, because Spanish law[19] excluded from succession the descendants of those who commit treason against the king, as Carlists deem Alfonso's male-line ancestors to have done once Francisco de Paula recognized the reign of Isabella II). Many also regarded his descent as illegitimate, believing that Alfonso XII's biological father was a lover of Queen Isabella's rather than her husband.

Most of the following events happened under the regime of Francisco Franco, who skillfully played each faction off against the others.

Borbón-Parma claim

  • Francisco Javier I[20]
Coat of arms used by the supporters of the Carlist claimants to the Spanish Throne with the Sacred Heart of Jesus and Immaculate Heart of Mary adopted c.1942 by Xavier of Bourbon.

Prince Xavier of Bourbon-Parma (25 May 1889 – 7 May 1977), known in Spain as Don Javier de Borbón, had been named regent of the Carlist Communion by Alfonso Carlos in 1936 as the nearest member of the House of Bourbon who shared the Carlist ideals.

During the

Natzweiler and Dachau concentration camp, where American troops liberated him in 1945. In 1952, Javier was proclaimed King of Spain, asserting Carlist legitimacy. Since the death of Alfonso Carlos, his successor by right of agnatic primogeniture had yet to be determined.[citation needed] To do so, it was necessary to trace the patriline of Philip V to his seniormost descendant who was not excluded from the throne by law (for treason, morganatic marriage, birth out-of-wedlock and other reasons legally established in the Novísima Recopilación of 1805, in force at the time of the First Carlist War). In 1952, when all lines senior to the House of Bourbon-Parma were deemed excluded,[citation needed] the claim was taken up by Don Javier (descended from Philip, Duke of Parma, third son of Philip V). Even though he was raised in the Carlist camp and named regent of the Carlist Communion in 1936, his proclamation as king later in 1956 was, it was asserted, not a political move based on ideology, but the consequence of dynastic legitimacy.[citation needed
] He remained the Carlist claimant until his renunciation in 1975.

Changes in the views of some in the Carlist movement polarized Javier's supporters between his two sons, Carlos Hugo and Sixto Enrique (and many more endorsing neither) in the late 1960s and early 1970s. Carlos Hugo turned organized Carlism into a socialist movement, while his brother Sixto Enrique (supported by his mother

far rightist
course.

In 1977 Sixto Enrique's supporters published a manifesto from Javier condemning Carlos Hugo. Several days later Carlos Hugo's supporters published a manifesto from Javier recognising Carlos Hugo as his heir.

Carlos Hugo (1968)

Carlos Hugo, Duke of Parma (8 April 1930 – 18 August 2010) was the elder son of Xavier. He was a Carlist claimant from 1977 until his death. After alienating many Carlists by his attempts to approach Franco (1965–1967), Carlos Hugo switched to a leftist Titoist, workers' self-management socialist movement. In 1979 he accepted Spanish citizenship from King Juan Carlos I and in 1980 he renounced his membership in the Partido Carlista, which he had created. Carlos Hugo had the support of a minority of Carlists including the Partido Carlista.[citation needed] He also excluded the Luxembourger branch of the family from Carlist succession due to unequal marriages by princes of that branch that were recognized as dynastic by the Grand Duke.

Prince Carlos, Duke of Parma (born 27 January 1970) is the elder son of Carlos Hugo. He inherited the Carlist claim on his father's death in 2010. Carlos has the support of a minority of Carlists including the Partido Carlista.[citation needed]

  • Sixto Enrique

Prince Sixto Enrique of Bourbon-Parma (born 22 July 1940) claims to be the current regent of the Carlist Communion. He is known as the Duke of Aranjuez.

Don Sixto Enrique is supported by the minority Comunión Tradicionalista, and some others who believe that his elder brother Carlos Hugo was the rightful heir, but ineligible for the succession on account of his socialism. Sixto Enrique has never claimed to be Carlist king, in the hopes that one of his nephews will one day accept traditional Carlist values.[citation needed]

Habsburgo-Borbón claim

The eldest daughter of Infante Carlos, Duke of Madrid was Blanca de Borbón y Borbón-Parma (1868–1949). She married Archduke Leopold Salvator of Austria (1863–1931). In 1943, one of their sons presented himself as a Carlist claimant in succession to his great-uncle Alfonso Carlos. Since this claim comes through a female line, it is rejected by most Carlists:[citation needed]

In 2012, Senator Iñaki Anasagasti of the Basque Country proposed the idea of creating a united Basque-Navarrese-Catalan monarchy with Archduke Dominic of Austria its king.[23][24]

Borbón claim

  • Alfonso de Borbón

Francisco de Asis de Borbón, son of Infante Francisco de Paula, the younger brother of Charles V. He was recognised as Carlist claimant by a small amount of Carlists who considered the death of Alfonso Carlos an opportunity to reunite Spanish monarchists, both Carlist and Isabelline. Nonetheless, despite this apparently attractive opportunity, Francisco de Paula and his descendants were considered legally and morally excluded from the line of succession by many Carlists as traitors, according to the Spanish laws of succession as they stood in 1833 (and as defended by Carlists since then).[25]
In 1941 Alfonso abdicated; he died two months later.

Alfonso's eldest son had died in 1938. His second son

Juan, Count of Barcelona
was his chosen successor.

Juan Carlos I of Spain
and a coat-of-arms with the San Andrés salitre, Carlists' assumed symbol.

Ideology

Carlism or Traditionalism can be labelled as a counter-revolutionary movement.

Carlism's intellectual landscape was a reaction against the basic tenets of the

French Revolution of 1789; laicism, individualism, egalitarianism, rationalism. In this sense, it is akin to the French Reactionaries (Legitimism) and Joseph de Maistre
's thinking.

It is difficult to give an accurate description of Carlist thinking for several reasons:

While Carlism and Falangism had certain similarities—social conservatism, Catholicism and anti-Communism—there were also stark differences between the two movements. Most significant was the fact that whereas Falangism subscribed to a strongly centralising form of Spanish nationalism, Carlism was more supportive of the fueros, preserving local culture and regional autonomy was one of their main tenets.

Carlism also supports

Salic Law
regarding succession, being legitimist monarchists.

Variant of the Spanish royal arms with the Sacred Heart. It was a common emblem of the Carlism supporters during the Spanish Civil War.[27]

Dios, Patria, Fueros, Rey

These four words (which can be translated as God, Fatherland, Local Rule, and King), have been the motto and cornerstone of Carlism throughout its existence. What Carlism understood by these was:

Supporters

Carlism was a true mass movement and drew its rank and file from all social classes, with a majority of peasant and working-class elements. Thus, it is no surprise that Carlism was involved in the creation of Catholic trade unions.[citation needed]

Offshoots and influence

  • Cultural and political regionalism in Spain (not to be mistaken with regional nationalism or separatism) was largely Carlist-originated. The influence of Carlist thinker Juan Vázquez de Mella in this field can still be traced today.
  • One of the founders of Basque nationalism, Sabino Arana, came from a Carlist background, and for many years competed for the same audience (Basque[clarification needed] catholics). Compare the PNV slogan "God and Fueros". Spanish Carlists with Franco battled and defeated Basque nationalists in 1936–1937.
  • Fuerismo was a doctrine prevalent in the Basque provinces. It supported the Isabelline monarchy but wanted to preserve the Fuero autonomy of the provinces.
  • Catholic politics [
    Christus Rex
    .
  • Victor Pradera's thinking was very influential, through the group Acción Española, in Spanish authoritarian thinking in the 1930s and 1940s.
  • Fernando Sebastián Aguilar, Archbishop of Pamplona and Tudela (Spain) caused controversy by publicly stating on 7 May 2007 that the Traditionalist Carlist Communion, among others, is worthy of consideration and of electoral support.
The Carlist symbol

Symbols

Name and names

The term "carlistas" when applied to followers of Carlos Maria Isidro emerged in the mid-1820s and has even filtered out to public discourse overseas.

Don Jaime
exceptionally did not bear the iconic name of Carlos.

In the late 19th century a related but not equivalent term "tradicionalistas" entered into circulation and was also applied either to the movement in general or to some of its factions in particular;[38] however, in press usage until the fall of the monarchy in 1931 "carlistas"/"carlismo" was 7 times more popular than "tradicionalistas"/"tradicionalismo".[39] During the republican period of 1931–1936 public usage changed; "tradicionalistas"/"tradicionalismo" were used 2–3 times more frequently than "carlistas"/"carlismo", though the former assumed somewhat broader connotation.[40] In the Francoist era of 1939–1975 the press, tightly censored especially until the mid-1960s, gave slight precedence to "carlistas" vs "tradicionalistas"[41] and to "tradicionalismo" vs "carlismo".[42] For the post-Francoist period there is no representative statistics available.[43] Currently in historiography and political science there is little agreement as to mutual relationship between "traditionalism" and "carlism".[44]

Until the late 1860s, the Carlist movement did not assume a formal structure. Shortly before the outbreak of the Third Carlist War the first Carlist political organization emerged; during the following 160 years the mainstream movement was embodied into various political entities, some of them loose and with somewhat different names adopted locally.[45] Relatively little significance was attached to organization, as Carlists considered themselves a broad social movement which in a sense was antithetical to a party. Splinter factions used to build their own structures, and the names of these evolved as well,[46] some names were re-cycled[47] and in popular discourse various alternate, informal or incorrect formal names have been used.[48] Differences between informal and formal names have been often disregarded.[49] The result was naming confusion, e.g. in the early 20th century 48% of press references featured "partido carlista" or "Partido Carlista", 18% featured "Partido Tradicionalista", 15% featured "Partido Jaimista" and 13% "Comunión Tradicionalista", plus at least 4 other denominations in circulation. In the mid-1930s the claimant Alfonso Carlos intended to introduce some discipline and declared that the only formal name be this of "Comunión Tradicionalista Carlista",[50] but he later himself referred to "Comunión Católico-Monárquico-Legitimista".[51] Statistical summary of frequency of various names as in press usage is reviewed in the below table.[52]

period CCM[53] CJ[54] CL[55] CT[56] CTC[57] PC[58] PCM[59] PJ[60] PT[61]
1860–1879 242 0 5 3 0 6807 117 0 143
1880–1899 686 0 3 1449 0 9947 82 3 2348
1900–1919 210 227 183 1390 0 5260 21 1601 1958
1920–1939 210 24 44 2671 7 362 5 257 1114
1940–1959 4 0 0 179 1 7 2 2 16
1960–1979 3 0 0 954 68 3726 4 1 17
total 1355 251 235 6646 76 26109 231 1864 5686

Related words

  • Estella-Lizarra was the site of the Carlist court.
  • Abrazo de Vergara
    , which ended the First Carlist War in the North.
  • Brigadas de Navarra were National Army units formed mainly by Requeté forces from Navarre at the start of the Spanish Civil War. They saw intensive action during the War.
  • Sacred Heart of Jesus
    worn on the uniform (over the heart) by most requetés.
  • Margaritas. Carlist women's organization. They often worked as war nurses.
  • Ojalateros were courtiers saying Ojalá nos ataquen y ganemos ("Wish they would attack us and we won"), but doing nothing to achieve victory. The name is a pun on hojalatero ("tinkerer", "pot-seller")
  • Requetés
     The armed Carlist militias.
  • Trágala, expression marking the desire to forcibly impose the ideas most hated by the opponents. Also a Liberal fighting song (chorus: "Swallow it, you Carlist, you who don't want a Constitution.").

Literary references to Carlism

Tourist information panel marking the so-called Route of Carlism

The liberal Spanish journalist Mariano José de Larra opposed Carlism and published several lampoons against it. Nadie pase sin hablar al portero (1833) presents Carlists as a bunch of bandit priests.[62]

Ernest Hemingway refers to Carlism in For Whom the Bell Tolls. He mentions two fascists and says, "They were Carlists from Navarra".[citation needed]

Francisco Navarro-Villoslada was a Carlist writer that published a historic novel, Amaya o los vascos en el siglo VIII, in the fashion of Walter Scott, presenting the legendary origins of Spanish monarchy as the start of Reconquista.[citation needed]

The Arrow of Gold by Joseph Conrad is set against the background of the third Carlist war.[citation needed]

Spanish Generation of 1898. He wrote novels about Carlism and was an active Carlist himself.[citation needed
]

Pío Baroja wrote a novel, Zalacaín el aventurero (Zalacain the Adventurer), set during the Third Carlist War, and referred to Carlism in an unfavourable light in several other works.[citation needed
]

The Spanish philosopher Miguel de Unamuno suffered as a child the siege of Bilbao during the Third Carlist War. Later he wrote a novel Paz en la guerra about that time. In 1895 he wrote to Joaquín Costa about his plans for an essay on the "intrahistoric" element of rural socialism within the Carlist masses.[citation needed]

The American conservative writer and

Francoism and considered Spanish Catholic authoritarianism to be preferable to American democracy.[63]

See also

References

Citations

  1. ^ François Velde: The Bourbons
  2. JSTOR 41166850
    .
  3. ^ Elías de Tejada y Spínola, Francisco; Gambra Ciudad, Rafael; Puy Muñoz, Francisco (1971). "1. El problema del carlismo" (PDF). ¿QUE es el CARLISMO?. Madrid: ESCELICER. p. 10. Objetivamente considerado, el Carlismo aparece como un movimiento político. Surgió al amparo de una bandera dinástica que se proclamó a sí misma «legitimista», y que se alzó a la muerte de Fernando VII, en el año 1833, con bastante eco y arraigo popular, [...] se distinguen en él esas tres bases cardinales que lo definen. a) Una bandera dinástica: Una continuidad histórica: Y una doctrina jurídico-política:
  4. procurators
     had no powers on this issue); 3) that Carlos's pre-existing rights could not be diminished retroactively by a law enacted in his lifetime.
  5. ^ Wilhelmsen, Alexandra (1993). "Antonio Aparisi y Guijarro: A Nineteenth-century Carlist Apologist for a Sacral Society in Spain." In: Saints, Sovereigns, and Scholars. New York and Geneva: Peter Lamb.
  6. ISBN 978-0-00-638695-7
    .
  7. ISBN 978-0-00-638695-7
    .
  8. ISBN 978-0-00-638695-7
    .
  9. ISBN 978-0-00-638695-7
    .
  10. ^ Carroll, Warren J. (1993). "Carlism in the Spanish Rising of 1936." In: Saints, Sovereigns, and Scholars. New York and Geneva: Peter Lamb.
  11. ^
    ISBN 978-0-00-638695-7
    .
  12. ^ In July 1936, the General asserted that "terror needs to be spread over (...) A feeling of domination needs to be achieved, eliminating without scruples or hesitation anyone who does not think like us" (surroundings of Pamplona).
  13. ISBN 978-84-15313-31-1
    .
  14. ISBN 978-0-299-11070-3
    .
  15. ^ Payne (1987), p. 235.
  16. ^ Payne (1987), p. 238.
  17. ^ Payne (1987), pp. 306–308.
  18. ^ carlismo.es/montejurra (in Spanish)
  19. Don Carlos). However, it is asserted that Francisco de Paula's recognition of Isabella II constituted a sufficient basis for exclusion from the succession according to the above-mentioned law.[citation needed
    ] Franciso de Paula's male-line descendants, theoretically excluded from Carlist succession by his "treason" against Don Carlos, recognized not only Isabella II but, eventually, her progeny as Spain's constitutional kings. It is not surprising, then, that Carlists consider Alfonso XIII and his descendants to have forfeited any rights to the throne on a legal as well as ideological basis.
  20. ^ a b Borbone Parma La Dinastia Archived 18 April 2009 at the Wayback Machine
  21. blogspot
    El Carlismo contra Globalizatión (Spanish)
  22. Europa Press
    (Spanish)
  23. ^ "Nabarra, Estado Soberano. Ironías del Destino: Desde 1936 la Corona Navarra y la Corona Española están separadas [Navarre, a sovereign state. Ironies of fate: Since 1936 the Navarrese Crown and the Spanish Crown have been separate]". Inaki Anasagasti's website (in Spanish). Retrieved 3 December 2012.
  24. ^ "MONARQUÍA CATALANA. DINASTÍA HABSBURGO-BORBÓN-NABARRA". Inaki Anasagasti's website (in Spanish).
  25. ^ For details on exclusion from succession for treason, see Melchor Ferrer, Domingo Tejera de Quesada, Jose F. Acedo, Historia del Tradicionalismo Español. Sevilla: Ediciones Trajano, 1941, p. 149.
  26. ^ Joseph Valynseele [in French] (1967). Les Prétendants aux Trônes d'Europe. France: Saintard de la Rochelle. pp. 149–151, 167–168, 174–176.
  27. ISBN 84-259-1074-9
  28. ^ Stated in the official carlism website: https://carlismo.es/ (in Spanish)
  29. ^ https://carlismo.es/la-cruz-de-borgona-primera-bandera-de-espana/ (in Spanish)
  30. University of Nevada
    Press, p. 32.
  31. better source needed
    ]
  32. ^ see e.g. references to "fernandinos" and "carlistas" in Mexico of 1826, Gazeta del gobierno de Mexico 21.01.1826, available here
  33. ^ see assortment of Spanish press from 1833–1834, available here
  34. ^ compare references to "facciosos" in assortment of Spanish press from 1833–1834, available here
  35. ^ compare references to "rebeldes" in assortment of Spanish press from 1833–1834, available here
  36. ^ compare references to "absolutistas" in assortment of Spanish press from 1833–1834, available here
  37. ^ see usage of the term "carlistas" in the chief daily of the movement, La Esperanza; it evolved from cautious and at times in "relata refero" mode in the early 1840s to fairly lexicalized and standard usage in the 1850s, compare here. In one of their first theoretical works, La España en la presente crisis by Vicente Pou (1842), the term "carlistas" is used sparsely and the term "carlismo" is not used at all, compare here
  38. ^ in 1840–1877 the terms "tradicionalismo" and "tradicionalistas" were barely used; in digitalized collections of Spanish press for this period "carlistas" is used 110,298 times and "tradicionalistas" 861 times, for "carlismo" and "tradicionalismo" the numbers are 17,716 vs 352, query in Hemeroteca Digital and Prensa Historica services of July 22, 2021
  39. ^ in the 1877–1930 press digitalized in the Hemeroteca Digital service "carlistas" appears 69,176 times and "tradicionalistas" appears 10,472 times; in the Prensa Historica hemeroteca for the same period the numbers are respectively 93,830 and 13,217. For "carlismo" and "tradicionalismo" the numbers are 14,981 vs 3,782 in Hemeroteca Digital and 15,893 vs 4,586 in Prensa Historica, query of July 22, 2021
  40. ^ in Hemeroteca Digital relation between "carlismo" and "tradicionalismo" is 691 vs 2,114, in Prensa Historica it stands at 564 vs 2,053; for "carlistas" and "tradicionalistas" the figures are 2,825 vs 5,802 in Hemeroteca Digital and 2,493 vs 6,434 in Prensa Historica, query of July 22, 2021
  41. ^ 1232 vs 587, Prensa Historica service, query of July 22, 2021 (Hemeroteca Digital does not cover the period after the civil war)
  42. ^ 691 vs 477, Prensa Historica service, query of July 22, 2021
  43. ^ though some newspapers, e.g. ABC or La Vanguardia, enable search in their digital archives also for the period after 1975, because of their specific political preferences (e.g. ABC is traditionally Alfonsist) their hemerotecas are not representative for general public discourse in Spain
  44. ISBN 978-83-60748-73-2
    , pp. 57–58; for similar though already historic opinion from inside Carlism see Melchor Ferrer, Historia del tradicionalismo español, vol. 18, Sevilla 1951, p. 49. Some use both terms interchangeably, see e.g. Martin Blinkhorn, Carlism and Crisis in Spain, Cambridge 2008, pp. 10, 21, 162, 303
  45. ^ e.g. in 1934, well after all Carlism had been united in Comunión Tradicionalista, the branch in Villar de Obispo used the name of "Comunión Católica Tradicionalista", Las Provincias 13.12.34, available here. In 1936 the same party name was used by the Cordoba branch, El defensor de Córdoba 21.02.36, available here
  46. ^ e.g. the 1888 breakaways initially planned to set up "Partido Tradicionalista", eventually emerged as "Partido Integrista Español", soon changed the name to "Partido Católico Nacional" and later re-emerged as "Comunión Tradicionalista-Integrista", while they were generally referred to as "partido integrista"
  47. ^ e.g. "Comunión Católico Monárquica", the name assumed by an organization operational at the turn of the 1860s and 1870s, was adopted as a name by the quasi-political organization set-up by so-called carloctavistas, active at the turn of the 1940s and 1950s
  48. ^ see e.g. the reference to "Partido Carlista" (capitalized) in the Carlist review, Tradicion 15.01.33, available here; at the time no such organization existed, and the formal name of the party referred to was "Comunion Tradicionalista"
  49. ^ e.g. "comunión carlista" could have easily turned into "Comunión carlista" or "Comunión Carlista", for the single year of 1933, see 3 various versions in El bien publico 31.01.33, available here, El Defensor de Cordoba 17.04.33, available here and El Pensamiento Alaves 15.07.33, available here
  50. ^ José María García Escudero, Historia política de las dos Españas, Volumen 3, Madrid 1975, p. 1387
  51. ISBN 978-84-87863-71-4
    , p. 545
  52. ^ aggregate data based on queries in Hemeroteca Digital and Prensa Historica services, all performed on July 22, 2021
  53. ^ Comunión Católico-Monárquica (also Comunión Católico Monárquica)
  54. ^ Comunión Jaimista
  55. ^ Comunión Legitimista
  56. ^ Comunión Tradicionalista
  57. ^ Comunión Tradicionalista Carlista
  58. ^ Partido Carlista (or "partido carlista")
  59. ^ Partido Católico-Monárquico (also Partido Católico Monárquico)
  60. ^ Partido Jaimista
  61. ^ Partido Tradicionalista
  62. ^ "Proyecto Mariano José de Larra en Internet: Nadie pase sin hablar al portero o los viajeros en Vitoria". 26 March 2009. Archived from the original on 26 March 2009. Retrieved 17 December 2020.
  63. ^ "He Was Dismissed as a Conservative Kook. Now the Supreme Court Is Embracing His Blueprint". Politico. 7 July 2022.

General sources

Further reading

  • Blinkhorn, Martin (1972). "Carlism and the Spanish Crisis of the 1930s," Journal of Contemporary History, Vol. 7, No. 3/4, pp. 65–88.
  • Blinkhorn, Martin (1975). Carlism and Crisis in Spain, 1931–1939, Cambridge University Press.
  • Brennan, Gerald (1960). "The Carlists." In: The Spanish Labyrinth. Cambridge University Press, pp. 203–214.
  • Brooks, Sydney (1902). "The Situation in Spain," The North American Review, Vol. 174, No. 546, pp. 640–653.
  • Coverdale, John F. (1984). The Basque Phase of Spain's First Carlist War. Princeton, N.J. : Princeton University Press.
  • Dillon, E. J. (1898). "The Coming of Carlism," The Contemporary Review, Vol. LXXIV, pp. 305–334.
  • Holt, Edgar (1967). The Carlist Wars in Spain. London: Putnam.
  • Miguel López, Raimundo de (1993). "El Pensamiento Político del Primer Carlismo." In: Saints, Sovereigns, and Scholars. New York and Geneva: Peter Lamb.
  • Mezei, Regina (1996). "Carlism and the Spanish–American War: The Role of the Pretender Carlos VII," Mediterranean Studies, Vol. 6, pp. 113–128.
  • O'Shea, John Augustus (1884). "With the Carlists," The Catholic World, Vol. 39, No. 234, pp. 801–815.
  • Parker, A. A. (1937). "History of Carlism in Spain," Studies: An Irish Quarterly Review, Vol. 26, No. 101, pp. 16–25.
  • Parker, A. A. (1937). "History and Policy of Carlism," Studies: An Irish Quarterly Review, Vol. 26, No. 102, pp. 207–222.
  • Parker, A. A. (1937). "Carlism in the Spanish Civil War," Studies: An Irish Quarterly Review, Vol. 26, No. 103, 383–398.
  • Preston, J. W. (1873). "Carlism in Spain," Scribner's Monthly, Vol. 7, No. 2, pp. 229–235.
  • Roche, James (1899). "The Outlook for Carlism," The North American Review, Vol. 168, No. 511, pp. 739–748.

External links

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