Carnivora

Source: Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia.

Carnivoran
Temporal range: 42–0 
Ma
Middle Eocene-Holocene[1][2]
CheetahBrown bearSpotted hyenaWolfBinturongRaccoonIndian grey mongooseAmerican minkFossaWalrusCarnivora portraits.jpg
About this image
Various carnivorans, with
caniforms
to the right
Scientific classification e
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Chordata
Class: Mammalia
Clade: Carnivoramorpha
Clade: Carnivoraformes
Order: Carnivora
Bowdich, 1821[3]
Suborders
Synonyms
list of synonyms:
  • Caniformes (Zagorodniuk, 2008)[4][5]
  • Carnaria (Haeckel, 1866)
  • Carnassidentia (Wortman, 1901)
  • Carnivores (Cuvier, 1817)
  • Carnivori (Vieq d'Azyr, 1792)
  • Carnivorida (Pearse, 1936)[6][7]
  • Carnivoriformes (Kinman, 1994)
  • Carnivoripedida (Vyalov, 1966)[8]
  • Cynofeliformia (Ginsburg, 1982)
  • Cynosia (Rafinesque, 1815)
  • Digitigrada (Illiger, 1811)
  • Digitigradae (Gray, 1821)
  • Eucarnivora (Mekayev, 2002)
  • Ferae (Linnaeus, 1758)
  • Fissipeda (Blumenbach, 1791)
  • Neocarnivora (Radinsky, 1977)
  • Plantigrada (Illiger, 1811)

Carnivora /kɑːrˈnɪvərə/ is an order of placental mammals that have specialized in primarily eating flesh, whose members are formally referred to as carnivorans. The order Carnivora is the fifth largest order of mammals, comprising at least 279 species.

Carnivorans live on every major landmass and in a variety of habitats, ranging from the cold polar regions to the hyper-arid region of the

Sahara Desert
to the open seas. They come in a very large array of different body plans in contrasting shapes and sizes.

Carnivora can be divided into two subclades: the cat-like Feliformia and the dog-like Caniformia, which are differentiated based on the structure of their ear bones and cranial features. The feliforms include families such as the cats, the hyenas, the mongooses and the civets. The majority of feliform species are found in the Old World, though the cats and one extinct genus of hyena have successfully diversified into the Americas. The caniforms include the dogs, bears, raccoons, weasels, and seals. Members of this group are found worldwide and with immense diversity in their diet, behavior, and morphology.[9]

Etymology

The word carnivore is derived from Latin carō (stem carn-) 'flesh' and vorāre 'to devour', and refers to any meat-eating organism.

Phylogeny

The oldest known carnivoran line mammals (

creodonts were occupying the megafaunal faunivorous niche. However, following the extinction of mesonychians and the oxyaenid creodonts at the end of the Eocene, carnivorans quickly moved into this niche, with forms like the nimravids being the dominant large-bodied ambush predators during the Oligocene alongside the hyaenodont creodonts (which similarly produced larger, more open-country forms at the start of the Oligocene). By the time Miocene
epoch appeared, most if not all of the major lineages and families of carnivorans had diversified and become the most dominant group of large terrestrial predators in Eurasia and North America, with various lineages being successful in megafaunal faunivorous niches at different intervals during the Miocene and later epochs.

Systematics

Evolution

Life reconstruction of Tapocyon robustus, a species of miacid

The order Carnivora belongs to a group of mammals known as Laurasiatheria, which also includes other groups such as bats and ungulates.[12][13] Within this group the carnivorans are placed in the clade Ferae. Ferae includes the closest extant relative of carnivorans, the pangolins, as well as several extinct groups of mostly Paleogene carnivorous placentals such as the creodonts, the arctocyonians, and mesonychians.[14] The creodonts were originally thought of as the sister taxon to the carnivorans, perhaps even ancestral to, based on the presence of the carnassial teeth,[15] but the nature of the carnassial teeth is different between the two groups. In carnivorans the carnassials are positioned near the front of the molar row, while in the creodonts they are positioned near the back of the molar row,[16] and this suggests a separate evolutionary history and an order-level distinction.[17] In addition recent phylogenetic analysis suggests that creodonts are more closely related to pangolins while mesonychians might be the sister group to carnivorans and their stem-relatives.[14]

The closest stem-carnivorans are the miacoids. The miacoids include the families Viverravidae and Miacidae, and together the Carnivora and Miacoidea form the stem-clade Carnivoramorpha. The miacoids were small, genet-like carnivoramorphs that occupy a variety of niches such as terrestrial and arboreal habitats. Recent studies have shown a supporting amount of evidence that Miacoidea is an evolutionary grade of carnivoramorphs that, while viverravids are monophyletic basal group, the miacids are paraphyletic in respect to Carnivora (as shown in the phylogeny below).[18][19][20][21][22][23][24][25]

 
Pan-Carnivora
 

Patriofelis ferox by R. B. Horsfall (coloured).png

 †Hyaenodonta 

Altacreodus

Tinerhodon

 ? 

Wyolestidae

 ? 

Simidectes

Hyaenodon horridus by R. B. Horsfall (coloured).jpg

 sensu lato 
 Carnivoramorpha 
 †Viverravidae 

Viverravoidea

 ? 

Ravenictis

 ? 

Carnivoramorpha sp. (UALVP 50993 & UALVP 50994)

 sensu lato 
 ? 

Carnivoramorpha sp. (UALVP 31176)

 ? 

Carnivoramorpha sp. (USNM 538395)

 ? 

"Sinopa" insectivorus

 Carnivoraformes 
 Clade "B" 

Eogale

"Miacis" sp. (CM 67873 & CM 77299)

Gracilocyon igniculus

Gracilocyon winkleri

Gracilocyon solei

Gracilocyon

Gracilocyon sp. (Jibou, Romania)

Gracilocyon rosei

Gracilocyon rundlei

Paramiacis

Paroodectes

 †Oodectes jepseni 

 †Oodectes 

 †Oodectes herpestoides 

 †Oodectes proximus 

 †Oodectes pugnax 

 †Uintacyon hookeri 

 †Uintacyon rudis 

 †Uintacyon 

 †Uintacyon massetericus 

 †Uintacyon vorax 

 †Uintacyon asodes 

 †Uintacyon edax 

 †Uintacyon acutus 

 †Uintacyon jugulans 

 †Uintacyon gingerichi 

Xinyuictis

Zodiocyon

Miocyon

Simamphicyon

 †Uintacyon sp. (USGS 1983) 

Messelogale

Quercygalidae

 Clade "C" 

Palaearctonyx

 (†
Phlaodectes

Vulpavus ovatus Vulpavus (Phlaodectes) ovatus (coloured).jpg

Vulpavus profectus

Vulpavus australis

Vulpavus canavus

Vulpavus completus

Vulpavus

Vulpavus farsonensis

Vulpavus palustris

Vassacyon

Dormaalocyon-latouri (white background).jpg

"Miacis" exiguus

"Miacis" deutschi

Africtis

 ? 

Carnivoraformes undet. Genus B

Dawsonicyon

"Miacis" boqinghensis

"Miacis" hookwayi

"Miacis" latidens

"Miacis" petilus

 ? 

Carnivoraformes undet. Genus A

Miacis restoration.jpg

 Clade "D" 

Lycarion

"Miacis" hargeri

 ? 

Ceruttia

"Miacis" invictus

"Miacis" lushiensis

Neovulpavus

Harpalodon

Procynodictis

Prodaphaenus

 ? 

Walshius

"Miacis" gracilis

Tapocyon

Carnivora (sensu stricto)

Dogs, jackals, wolves, and foxes (Plate XI).jpg

 (Carnivora [sensu lato]) 
Altacreodus/Tinerhodon
clade
Gracilocyon/Oodectes
clade
Vulpavus clade

Carnivoramorpha as a whole first appeared in the

monophyletic group, the crown group of the Carnivoramorpha.[26] From there carnivorans have split into two clades based on the composition of the bony structures that surround the middle ear of the skull, the cat-like feliforms and the dog-like caniforms.[27] In feliforms, the auditory bullae are double-chambered, composed of two bones joined by a septum. Caniforms have single-chambered or partially divided auditory bullae, composed of a single bone.[28] Initially the early representatives of carnivorans were small as the creodonts (specifically, the oxyaenids) and mesonychians dominated the apex predator niches during the Eocene, but in the Oligocene carnivorans became a dominant group of apex predators with the nimravids, and by the Miocene
most of the extant carnivoran families have diversified and become the primary terrestrial predators in the Northern Hemisphere.

The phylogenetic relationships of the carnivorans are shown in the following cladogram:[29][30][31][32][33]

 Carnivora 
 Feliformia 
 Aeluroidea 
 Viverroidea 
 Herpestoidea 
 Hyaenidae 

Dinocrocuta gigantea.jpg

Hyaenidae (hyaenas) Hyaena maculata - 1818-1842 - Print - Iconographia Zoologica - Special Collections University of Amsterdam -(white background).jpg

Lophocyonidae

 sensu lato 
 Herpestidae 

Herpestidae (mongooses) Lydekker - Broad-banded Cusimanse (white background).JPG

Cryptoprocta ferox - 1700-1880 - Print - Iconographia Zoologica - Special Collections University of Amsterdam -(white background).png

 sensu lato 

Malay Civet (Viverra tangalunga) white background.jpg

Shandgolictis

Asiavorator

Alagtsavbaatar

Anictis

 
Feloidea
 
 Prionodontidae 

Prionodontidae (Asiatic linsangs) Prionodon maculosus.png

Palaeoprionodon

 sensu lato 

Haplogale

Stenoplesictis

 ? 

Pseudictis

 Felidae 

Barbourofelidae

Viretictis

Stenogale

Stamp-russia2014-save-russian-cats-(snow leopard).png

 sensu lato 

Nandiniidae (African palm civet) The carnivores of West Africa (Nandinia binotata white background).png

Dinictis Knight.jpg

Palaeogalidae

 Caniformia 
 †
Amphicyonoidea
 

Ysengrinia.jpg

Lycophocyon

 
Canoidea
 
 
Cynoidea
 

Dogs, jackals, wolves, and foxes (Plate XI).jpg

 Arctoidea 
 Ursida 
 
Ursoidea
 

Ursidae (bears) Ursus thibetanus - 1700-1880 - Print - Iconographia Zoologica - Special Collections University of Amsterdam -(white background).jpg

Adracon

 
Mustelida
 
 Musteloidea 

Wild animals of North America, intimate studies of big and little creatures of the mammal kingdom (Page 410) (white background).jpg

RedPandaFullBody white background.JPG

Die Säugthiere in Abbildungen nach der Natur, mit Beschreibungen (Plate CXXI-) (white background).jpg

 ? 

Peignictis

Fitch white background.png

Plesiogale

 
Pan-Pinnipedia
 

Semantoridae

 Pinnipedimorpha 

Enaliarctidae

Pinnarctidion

 
Pinnipediformes
 

Pacificotaria

Pteronarctos

 
Pinnipedia
 
 Otarioidea 

Otariidae

(eared seals)

Zalophus californianus J. Smit (white background).jpg

Odobenidae
(walruses)

USSR stamp Walrus 1977 (white background).png

 
Phocoidea
 

Desmatophocidae

Phocidae

(earless seals)

Faroe stamp 227 grey seal (Phoca vitulina) white background.jpg

 sensu stricto 
 (Pinnipedia sensu lato) 

Classification of the extant carnivorans

In 1758 the

Ursus (ursids, large species of mustelids, and procyonids).[34] It wasn't until 1821 that the English writer and traveler Thomas Edward Bowdich gave the group its modern and accepted name.[3]

Initially the modern concept of Carnivora was divided into two suborders: the terrestrial Fissipedia and the marine

Pinnipedia.[35] Below is the classification of how the extant families were related to each other after American paleontologist George Gaylord Simpson in 1945:[35]

  • Order Carnivora Bowdich, 1821
    • Suborder Fissipedia Blumenbach, 1791
      • Superfamily Canoidea G. Fischer de Waldheim, 1817
        • Family Canidae G. Fischer de Waldheim, 1817 – dogs
        • Family
          Ursidae
          G. Fischer de Waldheim, 1817 – bears
        • Family Procyonidae Bonaparte, 1850 – raccoons and pandas
        • Family Mustelidae G. Fischer de Waldheim, 1817 – skunks, badgers, otters and weasels
      • Superfamily Feloidea G. Fischer de Waldheim, 1817
        • Family Viverridae J. E. Gray, 1821 – civets and mongooses
        • Family
          Hyaenidae
          J. E. Gray, 1821 – hyenas
        • Family Felidae G. Fischer de Waldheim, 1817 – cats
    • Suborder
      Pinnipedia
      Iliger, 1811
      • Family
        Otariidae
        J. E. Gray, 1825 – eared seals
      • Family Odobenidae J. A. Allen, 1880 – walrus
      • Family
        Phocidae
        J. E. Gray, 1821 – earless seals

Since then, however, the methods in which mammalogists use to assess the phylogenetic relationships among the carnivoran families has been improved with using more complicated and intensive incorporation of genetics, morphology and the fossil record. Research into Carnivora phylogeny since 1945 has found Fisspedia to be paraphyletic in respect to Pinnipedia,

polyphyletic
:

  • Mongooses and a handful of Malagasy endemic species are found to be in a clade with hyenas, with the Malagasy species being in their own family Eupleridae.[43][44][45]
  • The African palm civet is a basal cat-like carnivoran.[46]
  • The linsang is more closely related to cats.[47]
  • Pandas are not procyonids nor are they a natural grouping.[48] The giant panda is a true bear[49][50] while the red panda is a distinct family.[51]
  • Skunks and stink badgers are placed in their own family, and are the sister group to a clade containing Ailuridae, Procyonidae and Mustelidae sensu stricto.[52][51]

Below is a table chart of the extant carnivoran families and number of extant species recognized by various authors of the first and fourth volumes of Handbook of the Mammals of the World published in 2009[53] and 2014[54] respectively:

Carnivora Bowdich, 1821
Feliformia Kretzoi, 1945
Nandinioidea Pocock, 1929
Family English Name Distribution Number of Extant Species Type Taxon Image Figure
Nandiniidae Pocock, 1929 African Palm Civet Sub-Saharan Africa 1 Nandinia binotata (J. E. Gray, 1830)
Feloidea
G. Fischer de Waldheim, 1817
Family English Name Distribution Number of Extant Species Type Taxon Image Figure
Felidae G. Fischer de Waldheim, 1817 Cats Americas, Africa, and Eurasia (introduced to Madagascar, Australasia and several islands) 37 Felis catus Linnaeus, 1758
Felis catus-cat on snow.jpg
Prionodontidae
Horsfield, 1822
Linsangs Indomalayan realm 2
Prionodon linsang
(Hardwicke, 1821)
Viverroidea J. E. Gray, 1821
Family English Name Distribution Number of Extant Species Type Taxon Image Figure
Viverridae J. E. Gray, 1821 Civets, genets, and oyans Southern Europe, Indomalayan realm, and Africa (introduced to Madagascar) 34 Viverra zibetha Linnaeus, 1758
Large Indian Civet, Viverra zibetha in Kaeng Krachan national park.jpg
Herpestoidea Bonaparte, 1845
Family English Name Distribution Number of Extant Species Type Taxon Image Figure
Hyaenidae
J. E. Gray, 1821
Hyenas Africa, the Middle East, the Caucasus, Central Asia, and the Indian subcontinent 4
Hyaena hyaena
(Linnaeus, 1758)
Hyena at chattbir zoo.jpg
Herpestidae
Bonaparte, 1845
Mongooses Iberian Peninsula, Africa, the Middle East, the Caucasus, Central Asia, and the Indomalayan realm 34 Herpestes ichneumon (Linnaeus, 1758)
Herpestes ichneumon Египетский мангуст, или фараонова крыса, или ихневмо́н.jpg
Eupleridae Chenu, 1850 Malagasy mongooses and civets Madagascar 8 Eupleres goudotii Doyère, 1835
Eupleres goudotii - Museo Civico di Storia Naturale Giacomo Doria - Genoa, Italy - DSC02711.JPG
Caniformia Kretzoi, 1945
Canoidea
G. Fischer de Waldheim, 1817
Family English Name Distribution Number of Extant Species Type Taxon Image Figure
Canidae G. Fischer de Waldheim, 1817 Dogs Americas, Africa, and Eurasia (introduced to Madagascar, Australasia and several islands) 35 Canis familiaris Linnaeus, 1758
2013072515020909 MyDogs 622.jpg
Ursoidea
G. Fischer de Waldheim, 1817
Family English Name Distribution Number of Extant Species Type Taxon Image Figure
Ursidae
G. Fischer de Waldheim, 1817
Bears Americas and Eurasia 8
Ursus arctos
Linnaeus, 1758
Kamchatka Brown Bear near Dvuhyurtochnoe on 2015-07-23.jpg
Phocoidea J. E. Gray, 1821
Family English Name Distribution Number of Extant Species Type Taxon Image Figure
Odobenidae J. A. Allen, 1880 Walrus The North Pole in the Arctic Ocean and subarctic seas of the Northern Hemisphere 1 Odobenus rosmarus (Linnaeus, 1758)
Walrus2.jpg
Otariidae
J. E. Gray, 1825
Eared Seals Subpolar, temperate, and equatorial waters throughout the
Atlantic
Oceans
15 Otaria flavescens (Linnaeus, 1758)
Southern Sea Lions.jpg
Phocidae
J. E. Gray, 1821
Earless Seals The sea and Lake Baikal 18
Phoca vitulina
Linnaeus, 1758
White harbor seal on moss by Dave Withrow, NOAA.png
Musteloidea G. Fischer de Waldheim, 1817
Family English Name Distribution Number of Extant Species Type Taxon Image Figure
Mephitidae Bonaparte, 1845 Skunks and stink badgers Americas, western Philippines, and Indonesia and Malaysia 12
Mephitis mephitis
(Schreber, 1776)
Skunk about to spray.jpg
Ailuridae J. E. Gray, 1843 Red Panda Eastern
southwestern China
1 Ailurus fulgens F. Cuvier, 1825
RedPanda SingalilaNationalPark DFrame.jpg
Procyonidae J. E. Gray, 1825 Raccoons Americas (introduced to Europe, the Caucasus, and Japan) 12 Procyon lotor (Linnaeus, 1758)
Waschbaer auf dem Dach.jpg
Mustelidae G. Fischer de Waldheim, 1817 Weasels, otters, and badgers Americas, Africa, and Eurasia (introduced to Australasia and several islands) 57 Mustela erminea Linnaeus, 1758
Stoat - RSPB Sandy (28058976023).jpg

Anatomy

Skull

feliforms
.

The canine teeth are usually large and conical. The canines are thick and stress resistant. All of the terrestrial species of carnivorans have three

olfactory receptors.[56]

Postcranial region

Aside from an accumulation of characteristics in the dental and cranial features, not much of their overall anatomy unites carnivorans as a group.

quadrupedal and most have five digits on the front feet and four digits on the back feet. In terrestrial carnivorans, the feet have soft pads. The feet can either be , have pads on their feet.

Unlike

sirenians, which have fully functional tails to help them swim, pinnipeds use their limbs underwater to swim. Earless seals use their back flippers; sea lions and fur seals use their front flippers, and the walrus
use all of their limbs. As a result, pinnipeds have significantly shorter tails than other carnivorans.

Aside from the pinnipeds, dogs, bears, hyenas, and cats all have distinct and recognizable appearances. Dogs are usually

Herpestidae, Eupleridae, Mephitidae and Mustelidae have through convergent evolution maintained the small, ancestral appearance of the miacoids, though there is some variation seen such as the robust and stout physicality of badgers and the wolverine (Gulo gulo).[55] Male carnivorans usually have bacula, though they are absent in hyenas and binturongs.[57]

The length and density of the fur vary depending on the environment that the species inhabits. In warm climate species, the fur is often short in length and lighter. In cold climate species, the fur is either dense or long, often with an oily substance that helps to retain heat. The pelage coloration differs between species, often including black, white, orange, yellow, red, and many shades of grey and brown. Some are striped, spotted, blotched, banded, or otherwise boldly patterned. There seems to be a correlation between habitat and color pattern; for example spotted or banded species tend to be found in heavily forested environments.[55] Some species like the grey wolf are polymorphic with different individual having different coat colors. The arctic fox (Vulpes lagopus) and the stoat (Mustela erminea) have fur that changes from white and dense in the winter to brown and sparse in the summer. In pinnipeds, polar bears, and sea otters a thick insulating layer of blubber helps maintain their body temperature.

Relationship with humans

Carnivorans are arguably the group of mammals of most interest to humans. The

Caribbean Monk Seal (Neomonachus tropicalis) in 1952.[10] Some species such as the red fox (Vulpes vulpes) and stoat (Mustela erminea) have been introduced to Australasia and have caused many native species to become endangered or even extinct.[58]

See also

References

  1. ^
    S2CID 35030667
    .
  2. ^ "Carnivora". www.mindat.org. Retrieved 6 July 2021.
  3. ^ a b Bowditch, T. E. 1821. An analysis of the natural classifications of Mammalia for the use of students and travelers J. Smith Paris. 115. (refer pages 24, 33)
  4. ^ Zagorodniuk, I. (2008) "Scientific names of mammal orders: from descriptive to uniform" Visnyk of Lviv University, Biology series, Is. 48. P. 33-43
  5. ^ Zagorodniuk, I. (2014) "Changes In Taxonomic Diversity Of Ukrainian Mammals For The Last Three Centuties: Extinct, Phantom And Alien Speacies" Proceedings of the Theriological School, Vol. 12: 3–16
  6. ^ Arthur Sperry Pearse, (1936) "Zoological names. A list of phyla, classes, and orders, prepared for section F, American Association for the Advancement of Science" American Association for the Advancement of Science
  7. ^ G. G. Simpson (1952) "For and Against Uniform Endings in Zoological Nomenclature" in "Systematic Zoology Vol. 1, No. 1 (Spring, 1952)", pp. 20-23, Published By: Taylor & Francis, Ltd.
  8. ^ O. S. Vyalov (1966.) "Sledy Zhiznedeyatel'nosti Organizmov i ikh Paleontologicheskoye Znacheniye [Traces of Vital Activity of Organisms and their Paleontological Significance]" Naukova Dumka, Kyiv, 1-219
  9. OCLC 851800612
    .
  10. ^ .
  11. ^
    doi:10.1111/j.1475-4983.2006.00586.x.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link
    )
  12. .
  13. .
  14. ^ (PDF) from the original on 9 October 2022.
  15. ^ McKenna, M. C. (1975). "Toward a phylogenetic classification of the Mammalia". In Luckett, W. P.; Szalay, F. S. (eds.). Phylogeny of the Primates. New York: Plenum. pp. 21–46.
  16. .
  17. .
  18. ^ Bryant, H.N., and M. Wolson (2004) “Phylogenetic Nomenclature of Carnivoran Mammals.” First International Phylogenetic Nomenclature Meeting. Paris, Museum National d’Histoire Naturelle
  19. .
  20. .
  21. .
  22. .
  23. .
  24. .
  25. ^ Prevosti, F. J., & Forasiepi, A. M. (2018). "Introduction. Evolution of South American Mammalian Predators During the Cenozoic: Paleobiogeographic and Paleoenvironmental Contingencies"
  26. PMID 20138220
    .
  27. .
  28. .
  29. .
  30. .
  31. .
  32. .
  33. .
  34. ^ Linnaeus, C. (1758). Sistema naturae per regna tria Naturae, secundum classes, ordines, genera, species, cum characteribus differentiis, synonimis locis. Tomus I. Impensis direct. Laurentii Salvii, Holmia. pp. 20–32.
  35. ^ .
  36. .
  37. .
  38. ^ Hunt, R. M. Jr.; Barnes, L. G. (1994). "Basicranial evidence for ursid affinity of the oldest pinnipeds" (PDF). Proceedings of the San Diego Society of Natural History. 29: 57–67.
  39. PMID 17996107
    .
  40. .
  41. .
  42. .
  43. ^ Anne D. Yoder and John J. Flynn 2003: Origin of Malagasy Carnivora
  44. ^ Yoder, A., M. Burns, S. Zehr, T. Delefosse, G. Veron, S. Goodman, J. Flynn. 2003: Single origin of Malagasy Carnivora from an African ancestor – Letters to Nature
  45. ^ Philippe Gaubert, W. Chris Wozencraft, Pedro Cordeiro-Estrela and Géraldine Veron. 2005 – Mosaics of Convergences and Noise in Morphological Phylogenies: What's in a Viverrid-Like Carnivoran?
  46. PMID 20138220
    .
  47. .
  48. .
  49. .
  50. .
  51. ^ .
  52. .
  53. .
  54. .
  55. ^ .
  56. ^ .
  57. .
  58. ^ "100 of the World's Worst Invasive Species". Invasive Species Specialist Group.

External links