Cassava

Source: Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia.
"Yuca" redirects here. For the flowering shrubs, see Yucca.

Cassava
Botanical illustration of plant leaves and flowers
Photograph of oblong brown tuber, waxed
Tuber (waxed)
Scientific classification Edit this classification
Kingdom: Plantae
Clade: Tracheophytes
Clade: Angiosperms
Clade: Eudicots
Clade: Rosids
Order: Malpighiales
Family: Euphorbiaceae
Genus: Manihot
Species:
M. esculenta
Binomial name
Manihot esculenta
Synonyms[1]
  • Janipha aipi (Pohl) J.Presl
  • Janipha manihot (L.) Kunth
  • Jatropha aipi (Pohl) Göpp.
  • Jatropha diffusa (Pohl) Steud.
  • Jatropha digitiformis (Pohl) Steud.
  • Jatropha dulcis J.F.Gmel.
  • Jatropha flabellifolia (Pohl) Steud.
  • Jatropha loureiroi (Pohl) Steud.
  • Jatropha manihot L.
  • Jatropha mitis Rottb.
  • Jatropha paniculata Ruiz & Pav. ex Pax
  • Jatropha silvestris Vell.
  • Jatropha stipulata Vell.
  • Mandioca aipi (Pohl) Link
  • Mandioca dulcis (J.F.Gmel.) D.Parodi
  • Mandioca utilissima (Pohl) Link
  • Manihot aipi Pohl
  • Manihot aypi Spruce
  • Manihot cannabina Sweet
  • Manihot diffusa Pohl
  • Manihot digitiformis Pohl
  • Manihot dulcis (J.F.Gmel.) Baill.
  • Manihot edule A.Rich.
  • Manihot edulis A.Rich.
  • Manihot flabellifolia Pohl
  • Manihot flexuosa Pax & K.Hoffm.
  • Manihot loureiroi Pohl
  • Manihot melanobasis Müll. Arg.
  • Manihot sprucei Pax
  • Manihot utilissima Pohl

Manihot esculenta,

subtropical regions as an annual crop for its edible starchy root tuber, a major source of carbohydrates. Cassava is predominantly consumed in boiled form, but substantial quantities are processed to extract cassava starch, called tapioca, which is used for food, animal feed, and industrial purposes. The Brazilian farinha, and the related garri
of West Africa, is an edible coarse flour obtained by grating cassava roots, pressing moisture off the obtained grated pulp, and finally drying it (and roasting in the case of both farinha and garri).

Cassava is the third-largest source of food carbohydrates in the tropics, after

drought-tolerant
crops, capable of growing on marginal soils. Nigeria is the world's largest producer of cassava, while Thailand is the largest exporter of cassava starch.

Cassava is classified as either sweet or bitter. Like many other roots and tubers, both bitter and sweet varieties of cassava contain

food insecurity.[8][7] Farmers often prefer the bitter varieties because they deter pests, animals, and thieves.[12]

Description

The cassava root is long and tapered, with a firm, homogeneous flesh encased in a detachable rind, about 1 millimetre (1⁄16 inch) thick, rough and brown on the outside. Commercial

axis. The flesh can be chalk-white or yellowish. Cassava roots are very rich in starch and contain small amounts of calcium (16 milligrams per 100 grams), phosphorus (27 mg/100 g), and vitamin C (20.6 mg/100 g).[13] However, they are poor in protein and other nutrients. In contrast, cassava leaves are a good source of protein for animal and human[14]
nutrition, but deficient in the amino acid methionine.[15]

  • Cassava plant
    Cassava plant
  • Unprocessed roots
    Unprocessed roots
  • Tuber in cross-section
    Tuber in cross-section
  • Leaf
    Leaf
  • Leaf detail
    Leaf detail
  • Picked buds
    Picked buds
  • Seeds
    Seeds

Genome

The complete and haplotype-resolved African cassava (TME204) genome was reconstructed and made available using the Hi-C technology.[16] The genome shows abundant novel gene loci with enriched functionality related to chromatin organization, meristem development, and cell responses.[16] Differentially expressed transcripts of different haplotype origins were enriched for different functionality during tissue development. In each tissue, 20–30% of transcripts showed allele-specific expression differences with <2% of direction-shifting. Despite high gene synteny, the HiFi genome assembly revealed extensive chromosome rearrangements and abundant intra-genomic and inter-genomic divergent sequences, with significant structural variations mostly related to long terminal repeat retrotransposons.[16]

Although

pests and diseases, and smallholders tend to retain less productive but more diverse gene pools.[17]

Storage tuber

MeFT1 (FT) is a gene producing FT proteins which affect the formation of storage roots in many plants, including this one.

overexpression reducing storage root accumulation.[18]

Taxonomy

History

A cassava field in Bogor Regency, Indonesia
cassava bread
in 1565: grating yuca roots into paste, shaping the bread, and cooking it on a fire-heated burén
17th-century painting by Albert Eckhout in Dutch Brazil

Wild populations of M. esculenta subspecies flabellifolia, shown to be the progenitor of domesticated cassava, are centered in west-central Brazil, where it was likely first domesticated no more than 10,000 years ago.

Moche people often depicted yuca in their ceramics.[23]

Spaniards in their early occupation of Caribbean islands did not want to eat cassava or maize, which they considered insubstantial, dangerous, and not nutritious. They much preferred foods from Spain, specifically wheat bread, olive oil, red wine, and meat, and considered maize and cassava damaging to Europeans.[24] The cultivation and consumption of cassava were nonetheless continued in both Portuguese and Spanish America. Mass production of cassava bread became the first Cuban industry established by the Spanish.[25] Ships departing to Europe from Cuban ports such as Havana, Santiago, Bayamo, and Baracoa carried goods to Spain, but sailors needed to be provisioned for the voyage. The Spanish also needed to replenish their boats with dried meat, water, fruit, and large amounts of cassava bread.[26] Sailors complained that it caused them digestive problems.[27] Tropical Cuban weather was not suitable for wheat planting and cassava would not go stale as quickly as regular bread.

Cassava was introduced to Africa by Portuguese traders from Brazil in the 16th century. Around the same period, it was also introduced to Asia through

African breadfruit (Treculia africana). This description definitely holds in Africa and parts of South America; in Asian countries such as Vietnam fresh cassava barely features in human diets.[31]

There is a legend that cassava was introduced in 1880–1885 CE to the South Indian state of Kerala by the King of Travancore, Vishakham Thirunal Maharaja, after a great famine hit the kingdom, as a substitute for rice.[32] However, there are documented cases of cassava cultivation in parts of the state before the time of Vishakham Thirunal Maharaja.[33] Cassava is called kappa or maricheeni in Malayalam. It is also referred to as tapioca in Indian English usage.

Cultivation

Optimal conditions for cassava cultivation are: mean annual temperatures between 20 and 29 °C (68 and 84 °F), annual precipitation between 1,000 and 2,500 mm (39 and 98 in), and an annual growth period of no less than 240 days.

arenosol, andosol and luvisol.[34]

Pests

Main article: List of cassava diseases

A major cause of losses during cassava storage is infestation by insects.

biological control for cassava pests; two South American natural enemies Anagyrus lopezi (a parasitoid wasp) and Typhlodromalus
aripo (a predatory mite) were found to effectively control the cassava mealybug and the cassava green mite, respectively.

Xanthomonas axonopodis pv. manihotis causes bacterial blight of cassava. This disease originated in South America and has followed cassava around the world.[37] Bacterial blight has been responsible for near catastrophic losses and famine in past decades, and its mitigation requires active management practices.[37] Several other bacteria also attack cassava, including the related Xanthomonas campestris
pv. cassavae, which causes bacterial angular leaf spot.

Several viruses are of economic importance. The African cassava mosaic virus causes the leaves of the cassava plant to wither, limiting the growth of the root.[38] An outbreak of the virus in Africa in the 1920s led to a major famine.[39] The virus is spread by the whitefly and by the transplanting of diseased plants into new fields. Sometime in the late-1980s, a mutation occurred in Uganda that made the virus even more harmful, causing the complete loss of leaves. This mutated virus spread at a rate of 80 kilometres (50 miles) per year, and as of 2005 was found throughout Uganda, Rwanda, Burundi, the Democratic Republic of the Congo and the Republic of the Congo.[40] Viruses are a severe production limitation in the tropics. They are the primary reason for the complete lack of yield increases in the 25 years up to 2021.[5]

Bemisia tabaci whiteflies.[42]

A wide range of plant parasitic nematodes have been reported associated with cassava worldwide. These include Pratylenchus brachyurus, Rotylenchulus reniformis, Helicotylenchus spp., Scutellonema spp. and Meloidogyne spp., of which Meloidogyne incognita and Meloidogyne javanica are the most widely reported and economically important.[43] Meloidogyne spp. feeding produces physically damaging galls with eggs inside them. Galls later merge as the females grow and enlarge, and they interfere with water and nutrient supply.[44] Cassava roots become tough with age and restrict the movement of the juveniles and the egg release. It is therefore possible that extensive galling can be observed even at low densities following infection.[45] Other pests and diseases can gain entry through the physical damage caused by gall formation, leading to rots. They have not been shown to cause direct damage to the enlarged storage roots, but plants can have reduced height if there was loss of enlarged root weight.[46]

Research on nematode pests of cassava is still in the early stages; results on the response of cassava is, therefore, not consistent, ranging from negligible to seriously damaging.[47][48][44][49] Since nematodes have such a seemingly erratic distribution in cassava agricultural fields, it is not easy to clearly define the level of direct damage attributed to nematodes and thereafter quantify the success of a chosen management method.[45]

The use of nematicides has been found to result in lower numbers of galls per feeder root compared to a control, coupled with a lower number of rots in the storage roots.[50] The organophosphorus nematicide femaniphos, when used, did not affect crop growth and yield parameter variables measured at harvest. Nematicide use in cassava is not terribly effective at increasing harvested yield, but lower infestation at harvest and lower subsequent storage loss provide a higher effective yield. The use of tolerant and resistant cultivars is the most practical management method in most locales.[51][45][52]

This crop suffers from a rust, rust of cassava, caused by Uromyces manihotis.[53]

Genetically engineered cassava offers opportunities for the improvement of virus resistance, including CMV and CBSD resistance.[54]

Harvesting

Cassava is harvested by hand by raising the lower part of the stem, pulling the roots out of the ground, and removing them from the base of the plant. The upper parts of the stems with the leaves are plucked off before harvest. Cassava is propagated by cutting the stem into sections of approximately 15 cm, these being planted prior to the wet season.[55] Cassava growth is favorable under temperatures ranging from 25 to 29 °C (77 to 84 °F), but it can tolerate temperatures as low as 12 °C (54 °F) and as high as 40 °C (104 °F).[56]

  • Cassava stakes
    Cassava stakes
  • Cassava grafting
    Cassava grafting
  • Flower buds of cassava
    Flower buds of cassava

Postharvest handling and storage

Cassava undergoes post-harvest physiological deterioration (PPD) once the tubers are separated from the main plant. The tubers, when damaged, normally respond with a healing mechanism. However, the same mechanism, which involves

thiabendazole or bleach as a fungicide, then wrapping in plastic, coating in wax or freezing.[58]

While alternative methods for PPD control have been proposed, such as preventing ROS effects by use of plastic bags during storage and transport, coating the roots with wax, or freezing roots, such strategies have proved to be economically or technically impractical, leading to breeding of cassava varieties more tolerant to PPD and with improved durability after harvest.[59] Plant breeding has resulted in different strategies for cassava tolerance to PPD.[59][60] One was induced by mutagenic levels of gamma rays, which putatively silenced one of the genes involved in PPD genesis, while another was a group of high-carotene clones in which the antioxidant properties of carotenoids are postulated to protect the roots from PPD.[60]

  • Cassava starch processing
    Cassava starch processing
  • Cassava starch flour processing
    Cassava starch flour processing
  • Cassava starch wet-processing
    Cassava starch wet-processing
  • Cassava starch
    Cassava starch
  • Spreading Casabe burrero (cassava bread) to dry, Venezuela
    Spreading Casabe burrero (cassava bread) to dry, Venezuela
  • Cassava starch being prepared for packaging
    Cassava starch being prepared for packaging
  • Cassava starch packaged and ready for shipping
    Cassava starch packaged and ready for shipping
  • Frozen cassava leaves in a Los Angeles market
    Frozen cassava leaves in a Los Angeles market

Production

Cassava production – 2020
Country Production (millions of tonnes)
 Nigeria 60.0
 Democratic Republic of the Congo 41.0
 Thailand 29.0
 Ghana 21.8
 Indonesia 18.3
World 303
Source:
FAOSTAT of the United Nations[61]

In 2020, global production of cassava root was 303 million tonnes, with Nigeria as the world's largest producer, producing 20% of the world total (table). Other major growers were Democratic Republic of the Congo and Thailand.[61]

Cassava is one of the most

drought-tolerant
crops, can be successfully grown on marginal soils, and gives reasonable yields where many other crops do not grow well. Cassava is well adapted within latitudes 30° north and south of the equator, at elevations between sea level and 2,000 m (7,000 ft) above sea level, in equatorial temperatures, with rainfalls from 50 to 5,000 mm (2 to 200 in) annually, and to poor soils with a pH ranging from acidic to alkaline. These conditions are common in certain parts of Africa and South America.

Cassava is a highly productive crop when considering food energy produced per unit land area per day – 1,000,000 kJ/ha (250,000 kcal/ha), as compared with 650,000 kJ/ha (156,000 kcal/ha) for rice, 460,000 kJ/ha (110,000 kcal/ha) for wheat and 840,000 kJ/ha (200,000 kcal/ha) for maize.[62]

Toxicity

Cassava roots, peels and leaves should not be consumed raw because they contain two

cyanogenic glucosides, linamarin and lotaustralin. These are decomposed by linamarase, a naturally occurring enzyme in cassava, liberating hydrogen cyanide (HCN).[63] Cassava varieties are often categorized as either bitter or sweet, signifying the presence or absence of toxic levels of cyanogenic glucosides, respectively. The so-called sweet (more accurately non-bitter) cultivars can produce as little as 20 milligrams of cyanide (CN) per kilogram of fresh roots, whereas bitter ones may produce more than 50 times as much (1 g/kg). Cassavas grown during drought are especially high in these toxins.[64][65] A dose of 25 mg of pure cassava cyanogenic glucoside, which contains 2.5 mg of cyanide, is sufficient to kill a rat.[66] Excess cyanide residue from improper preparation is known to cause acute cyanide intoxication, and goiters, and has been linked to ataxia (a neurological disorder affecting the ability to walk, also known as konzo).[7] It has also been linked to tropical calcific pancreatitis in humans, leading to chronic pancreatitis.[67][68]

Symptoms of acute cyanide intoxication appear four or more hours after ingesting raw or poorly processed cassava: vertigo, vomiting, and collapse. In some cases, death may result within one or two hours. It can be treated easily with an injection of thiosulfate (which makes sulfur available for the patient's body to detoxify by converting the poisonous cyanide into thiocyanate).[7]

"Chronic, low-level cyanide exposure is associated with the development of

goiter and with tropical ataxic neuropathy, a nerve-damaging disorder that renders a person unsteady and uncoordinated. Severe cyanide poisoning, particularly during famines, is associated with outbreaks of a debilitating, irreversible paralytic disorder called konzo and, in some cases, death. The incidence of konzo and tropical ataxic neuropathy can be as high as three percent in some areas."[69][70]

During the shortages in Venezuela in the late 2010s, dozens of deaths were reported due to Venezuelans resorting to eating bitter cassava in order to curb starvation.[71][72] Cases of cassava poisoning were also documented during the famine accompanying the Great Leap Forward (1958–1962) in China.[73]

Societies that traditionally eat cassava generally understand that some processing (soaking, cooking, fermentation, etc.) is necessary to avoid getting sick. Brief soaking (four hours) of cassava is not sufficient, but soaking for 18–24 hours can remove up to half the level of cyanide. Drying may not be sufficient, either.[7]

Cassava root, peeled and soaking

For some smaller-rooted, sweet varieties, cooking is sufficient to eliminate all toxicity. The cyanide is carried away in the processing water and the amounts produced in domestic consumption are too small to have environmental impact.[63] The larger-rooted, bitter varieties used for production of flour or starch must be processed to remove the cyanogenic glucosides. The large roots are peeled and then ground into flour, which is then soaked in water, squeezed dry several times, and toasted. The starch grains that flow with the water during the soaking process are also used in cooking.[74] The flour is used throughout South America and the Caribbean. Industrial production of cassava flour, even at the cottage level, may generate enough cyanide and cyanogenic glycosides in the effluents to have a severe environmental impact.[63]

Uses

See also: Tapioca § Uses
Processing cassava starch into cassava noodles, Kampong Cham

Alcoholic beverages

Main article: List of amylase-induced fermentations

parakari or kari (Venezuela, Guyana, Surinam), nihamanchi (South America) also known as [what language is this?] (Ecuador and Peru), ö döi (chicha de yuca, Ngäbe-Bugle, Panama), sakurá (Brazil, Suriname), and tarul ko [what language is this?
] (Darjeeling, Sikkim, India).

Culinary

Main article: Cassava-based dishes
Cassava heavy cake

Cassava-based dishes are widely consumed wherever the plant is cultivated; some have regional, national, or ethnic importance.[75] Cassava must be cooked properly to detoxify it before it is eaten.[76]

Cassava can be cooked in many ways. The root of the sweet variety has a delicate flavor and can replace potatoes. It is used in cholent in some Jewish households.[77] It can be made into a flour that is used in breads, cakes and cookies. In Brazil, detoxified cassava is ground and cooked to a dry, often hard or crunchy meal known as farofa used as a condiment, toasted in butter, or eaten alone as a side dish.

Preparation of bitter cassava

Cassava bread

A safe processing method known as the "wetting method" is to mix the cassava flour with water into a thick paste, spread it in a thin layer over a basket and then let it stand for five hours at 30 °C in the shade.[78] In that time, about 83% of the cyanogenic glycosides are broken down by the linamarase; the resulting hydrogen cyanide escapes to the atmosphere, making the flour safe for consumption the same evening.[78]

The traditional method used in West Africa is to peel the roots and put them into water for three days to ferment. The roots are then dried or cooked. In Nigeria and several other west African countries, including Ghana, Cameroon, Benin, Togo, Ivory Coast, and Burkina Faso, they are usually grated and lightly fried in palm oil to preserve them. The result is a foodstuff called

goiters seen in the Akoko area of southwestern Nigeria.[80][81]

A traditional method used by the Lucayans to detoxify manioc is by peeling, grinding, and mashing; filtering the mash through a basket tube to remove the hydrogen cyanide; and drying and sieving the mash for flour. The poisonous filtrate water was boiled to release the hydrogen cyanide, and used as a base for stews.[82]

A project called "BioCassava Plus" uses

cyanogenic glycosides combined with fortification of vitamin A, iron and protein to improve the nutrition of people in sub-Saharan Africa.[83][84]

Cassava roots

In Guyana the traditional cassareep is made from the juice of the bitter cassava root, which is poisonous (it contains acetone cyanohydrin, a compound which decomposes to the highly toxic hydrogen cyanide on contact with water).[85] Hydrogen cyanide, traditionally called "prussic acid", is volatile and quickly dissipates when heated.[86] Nevertheless, improperly cooked cassava has been blamed for a number of deaths.[87] Amerindians from Guyana reportedly made an antidote by steeping chili peppers in rum.[88]

To make cassareep, the juice is boiled until it is reduced by half in volume,[89] to the consistency of molasses[88] and flavored with spices—including cloves, cinnamon, salt, sugar, and cayenne pepper.[90] Traditionally, cassareep was boiled in a soft pot, the actual "pepper pot", which would absorb the flavors and also impart them (even if dry) to foods such as rice and chicken cooked in it.[91]

Most cassareep is exported from Guyana.[92] The natives of Guyana traditionally brought the product to town in bottles,[93] and it is available on the US market in bottled form.[94] Though the cassava root traveled from Brazil to Africa, where the majority of cassava is grown, there is no production of cassareep in Africa.[95]

Nutrition

Cassava, raw
Nutritional value per 100 g (3.5 oz)
Energy670 kJ (160 kcal)
38.1 g
Sugars1.7 g
Dietary fiber1.8 g
0.3 g
1.4 g
Niacin (B3)
5%
0.854 mg
Vitamin B6
5%
0.088 mg
Folate (B9)
7%
27 μg
Vitamin C
23%
20.6 mg
MineralsQuantity
%DV†
Calcium
1%
16 mg
Iron
2%
0.27 mg
Magnesium
5%
21 mg
Phosphorus
2%
27 mg
Potassium
9%
271 mg
Sodium
1%
14 mg
Zinc
3%
0.34 mg
Other constituentsQuantity
Water60 g
Full Link to USDA Database entry
†Percentages estimated using US recommendations for adults,[96] except for potassium, which is estimated based on expert recommendation from the National Academies.[97]

Raw cassava is 60% water, 38%

digestibility of over 75%.[98]

Cassava, like other foods, also has antinutritional and toxic factors. Of particular concern are the cyanogenic glucosides of cassava (linamarin and lotaustralin). On hydrolysis, these release hydrogen cyanide (HCN). The presence of cyanide in cassava is of concern for human and for animal consumption. The concentration of these antinutritional and unsafe glycosides varies considerably between varieties and also with climatic and cultural conditions. Selection of cassava species to be grown, therefore, is quite important. Once harvested, bitter cassava must be treated and prepared properly prior to human or animal consumption, while sweet cassava can be used after boiling.

Comparison with other major staple foods

A comparative table shows that cassava is a good energy source. In its prepared forms, in which its toxic or unpleasant components have been reduced to acceptable levels, it contains an extremely high proportion of starch compared to most staples. However, cassava is a poorer dietary source of protein and most other essential nutrients. Though an important staple, its main value is as a component of a balanced diet.

Comparisons between the nutrient content of cassava and other major staple foods when raw must be interpreted with caution because most staples are not edible in such forms and many are indigestible, even dangerously poisonous or otherwise harmful.[99] For consumption, each must be prepared and cooked as appropriate.

Biofuel

In many countries, significant research has begun to evaluate the use of cassava as an

People's Republic of China, the target was to increase the production of ethanol fuel from nongrain feedstock to 2 million metric tons (2,000,000 long tons; 2,200,000 short tons), and that of biodiesel to 200 thousand metric tons (200,000 long tons; 220,000 short tons) by 2010. This is equivalent to the replacement of 10 million metric tons (9,800,000 long tons; 11,000,000 short tons) of petroleum.[100] This push for non-grain ethanol was further increased to a goal of 300 million metric tons (300,000,000 long tons; 330,000,000 short tons) of cellulosic and non-grain based ethanol combined by 2020.[101] As a result, cassava (tapioca) chips have gradually become a major source of ethanol production. On 22 December 2007, the largest cassava ethanol fuel production facility was completed in Beihai, with annual output of 200 thousand metric tons (200,000 long tons; 220,000 short tons), which would need an average of 1.5 million metric tons (1,500,000 long tons; 1,700,000 short tons) of cassava. In November 2008, China-based Hainan Yedao Group invested US$51.5 million in a new biofuel facility that is expected to produce 120 million litres (33 million US gallons) a year of bioethanol from cassava plants.[102]

Animal feed

Tubers being grated; a close-up of the product; drying on road to be used for pig and chicken feed

Cassava tubers and hay are used worldwide as animal feed. Cassava hay is harvested at a young growth stage (three to four months) when it reaches about 30 to 45 cm (12 to 18 in) above ground; it is then sun-dried for one to two days until its final dry matter content approaches 85 percent. Cassava hay contains high protein (20–27 percent crude protein) and condensed tannins (1.5–4 percent CP). It is valued as a good roughage source for ruminants such as cattle.[103]

Laundry starch

Cassava is also used in a number of commercially available laundry products, especially as starch for shirts and other garments.[104] Using cassava starch diluted in water and spraying it over fabrics before ironing helps stiffen collars.

Economic importance

See also: Tapioca § Production

Cassava,

carbohydrates per cultivated area among crop plants, after sugarcane and sugar beets.[105] Cassava plays a particularly important role in agriculture in developing countries, especially in sub-Saharan Africa, because it does well on poor soils and with low rainfall, and because it is a perennial that can be harvested as required. Its wide harvesting window allows it to act as a famine reserve and is invaluable in managing labor schedules. It offers flexibility to resource-poor farmers because it serves as either a subsistence or a cash crop.[106]

Worldwide, 800 million people depend on cassava as their primary food staple.[107] No continent depends as much on root and tuber crops in feeding its population as does Africa. In the humid and sub-humid areas of tropical Africa, it is either a primary staple food or a secondary costaple. In Ghana, for example, cassava and yams occupy an important position in the agricultural economy and contribute about 46 percent of the agricultural gross domestic product. Cassava accounts for a daily caloric intake of 30 percent in Ghana and is grown by nearly every farming family. The importance of cassava to many Africans is epitomised in the Ewe (a language spoken in Ghana, Togo and Benin) name for the plant, agbeli, meaning "there is life".

In

Attur. Cassava is widely cultivated and eaten as a staple food in Andhra Pradesh and in Kerala. In Assam
it is an important source of carbohydrates especially for natives of hilly areas.

In the subtropical region of southern China, cassava is the fifth-largest crop in terms of production, after

sugar cane, and maize. China is also the largest export market for cassava produced in Vietnam and Thailand. Over 60 percent of cassava production in China is concentrated in a single province, Guangxi
, averaging over seven million tonnes annually.

See also

References

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External links
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Cassava&oldid=1218865739"