Castro culture
Castro culture (
The most notable characteristics of this culture are its walled
The area of
History
The Castro culture emerged during the first two centuries of the first millennium BC, in the region extending from the
The end of the Atlantic Bronze Age
From the
From the beginning of the first millennium, the network appears to collapse, possibly because the Iron Age had outdated the Atlantic tin and bronze products in the Mediterranean region, and the large-scale production of metallic items was reduced to the elaboration of axes and tools, which are still found buried in very large quantities all along the European Atlantic coast.
Formative period
During the transition of the Bronze to the Iron Age, from the
In essence, the main characteristic of this formative period is the assumption by the community of a larger authority at the expense of the elites, reflected in the minor importance of prestige items production, while the collective invested important resources and labour in the communal spaces and defences.[10]
Second Iron Age
Since the beginning of the 6th century BC the Castro culture experienced an inner expansion: hundreds of new hill-forts were founded, while some older small ones were abandoned for new emplacements.
Not only did the number of settlements grow during this period, but also their size and density. First, the old familiar huts were frequently substituted by groups of family housing, composed generally of one or more huts with hearth, plus round granaries, and elongated or square sheds and workshops. At the same time, these houses and groups tended to occupy most of the internal room of the hill-forts, reducing the communitarian open spaces, which in turn would have been substituted by other facilities such as
Although most of the communities of this period had mostly self-sufficient isolated economies, one important change was the return of trade with the Mediterranean by the now independent
Oppida | |
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The oppida
From the 2nd century BC, specially in the south, some of the hill-forts turned into semi-urban fortified towns,
These native cities or citadels were characterised by their size and by urban features such as paved streets equipped with channels for
The oppida's dwelling areas are frequently externally walled, and kitchens, sheds, granaries, workshops and living rooms are ordered around an inner paved yard, sometimes equipped with fountains, drains and reservoirs.
Cividade de Bagunte (
Urbanism | |
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Roman era
The first meeting of Rome with the inhabitants of the castros and cividades was during the Punic wars, when Carthaginians hired local mercenaries for fighting Rome in the Mediterranean and into Italy.
Later on,
But only after the Romans defeated the Asturians and Cantabrians in 19 BC is evident—through inscriptions, numismatic and other archaeological findings—the submission of the local powers to Rome.While the 1st century BC represents an era of expansion and maturity for the Castro Culture, under Roman influence and with the local economy apparently powered more than hindered by Roman commerce and wars, during the next century the control of Roma became political and military, and for the first time in more than a millennium new unfortified settlements were established in the plains and valleys, at the same time that numerous hill-forts and cities were abandoned. Strabo wrote, probably describing this process: "until they were stopped by the Romans, who humiliated them and reduced most of their cities to mere villages" (Strabo, III.3.5).
The culture went through somewhat of a transformation, as a result of the Roman conquest and formation of the Roman province of
Economy and arts
As stated, while Bronze Age economy was based on the exploitation and exportation of mineral local resources, tin and copper and on mass production and long range distribution of prestige items, Iron Age economy was based on an economy of necessity goods,[18] as most items and productions were obtained in situ, or interchanged thought short range commerce.
In the southern coastal areas the presence of Mediterranean merchants from the 6th century BC onward, would have occasioned an increase in social inequality, bringing many importations (fine
Ancient Roman military presence in the south and east of the Iberian Peninsula since the 2nd century BC would have reinforced the role of the autochthonous warrior elites, with better access to local prestige items and importations.
Stonework | |
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Food and food production
The second pillar of local economy was
Metallurgy
Mining was an integral part of the culture, and it attracted Mediterranean merchants, first
During the initial centuries of the first millennium BC, bronze was still the most used metal, although iron was progressively introduced. The main products include tools (sickles, hoes, ploughs, axes), domestic items (knives and cauldrons), and weapons (antenna swords, spearheads). During the initial Iron Age, the local artisans stopped producing some of the most characteristic Bronze Age items such as carp tongue, leaf-shaped and rapier swords, double-ringed axes, breastplates and most jewellery.[24] From this time, the Castro culture develops jewellery of the Hallstatt type, but with a distinctive Mediterranean influence, especially in the production of feminine jewellery.[25] Some 120 gold torcs are known, produced in three main regional styles[26] frequently having large, void terminals, containing little stones which allowed them to be also used as rattles. Other metal artefacts include
Decorative motifs include rosettes, triskelions, swastikas, spirals, interlaces, as well as palm tree, herringbone and string motifs, many of which were still carved in Romanesque churches, and are still used today in local folk art and traditional items in Galicia, Portugal and northern Spain.[28][29] These same motifs were also extensively used in stone decoration. Castro sculpture also reveals that locals carved these figures in wood items, such as chairs, and wove them into their clothes.
Metallurgy | |
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Stonework
While the use of stone for constructions is an old tradition in the Castro culture, dating from the 1st centuries of the 1st millennium BC, sculpture only became usual from the 2nd century BC, specially in the southern half of the territory, associated to the oppida. Five main types are produced, all of them in granite stone:[29]
- Guerreiros or 'Warrior statues', usually representing a male warrior in a standing pose, holding ready a short sword and a caetra (small local shield), and wearing a cap or helmet, torc, viriae (bracelets) and decorated shirt, skirt and belt.
- Sitting statues: They usually depicts what is considered to be a god sitting on a decorated throne, wearing viriae or bracelets, and holding a cup or pot. Although the motives are autochthonous, their model are clearly Mediterranean; nevertheless, unlike the Gallaecian ones, the Iberian sitting statues usually depicts goddesses. Some few statues of feminine divinities are also known representing a standing nude woman only wearing a torc, as the male warrior statues.[30]
- Severed heads: similar to the têtes coupées from France;[31] they represent dead heads, and were usually located in walls of ancient hill-forts, and are still found reused near of them. Unlike all the other types, these are more common in the north.
- Pedras formosas (literally 'beauty stones'), or elaborated and sculpted slabs used inside saunas, as door frame of the inner room.
- Architectural decoration: The houses of the oppida of southern Galicia and northern wheels, spirals, swastikas, string like and interlaced designs, among others.[32]
Pedra Formosa Stonework | |
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Pottery and other crafts
Pottery was produced locally in a variety of styles, although wealthier people also possessed imported Mediterranean products. The richest pottery was produced in the south, from the Rias Baixas region in Galicia to the Douro, where decoration was frequently stamped and incised into pots and vases.[33] The patterns used often revealed the town where these were produced.
Language, society and religion
Society and government
In the 1st century AD, more than 700,000 people were living in the main area of the Castro culture, in hill forts and oppida.
Each populi or civitas was composed of a number of castella, each one comprehending one or more hill-forts or oppida, by themselves an autonomous political chiefdom, probably under the direction of a chief and a senate. Under Roman influence the tribes or populi apparently ascended to a major role, at the expense of the minor entities.[35] From the beginning of our era a few Latin inscriptions are known where some individuals declare themselves princeps or ambimogidus of a certain populi or civitas.
Onomastics and languages
The name of some of the castles and oppida are known through the declaration of origin of persons mentioned in epitaphs and votive Latin inscriptions[36] (Berisamo, Letiobri, Ercoriobri, Louciocelo, Olca, Serante, Talabriga, Aviliobris, Meidunio, Durbede..), through the epithets of local Gods in votive altars (Alaniobrica, Berubrico, Aetiobrigo, Viriocelense...), and the testimony of classic authors and geographers (Adrobrica, Ebora, Abobrica, Nemetobriga, Brigantium, Olina, Caladunum, Tyde, Glandomirum, Ocelum...). Some more names can be inferred from modern place names, as those containing an evolution of the Celtic element brigs meaning "hill" and characteristically ligated to old hill-forts[37][38] (Tragove, O Grove < Ogrobre, Canzobre < Caranzobre, Cortobe, Lestrove, Landrove, Iñobre, Maiobre...) Approximately half the pre-Latin toponyms of Roman Gallaecia were Celtic, while the rest were either non Celtic western Indo-European, or mixed toponyms containing Celtic and non-Celtic elements.[39]
On the local personal names, less than two hundred are known,[40] many of which are also present either in the Lusitania, or either among the Astures, or among the Celtiberians. Whilst many of them have a sure Celtic etymology,[41][42] frequently related to war, fame or valour, others show preservation of /p/ and so are probably Lusitanian better than properly Celtic; in any case, many names could be Celtic or Lusitanian, or even belong to another indo-European local language. Among the most frequent names are Reburrus, Camalus (related to Old Irish cam 'battle, encounter'), Caturus (to Celtic *katu- 'fight'), Cloutius (to Celtic *klouto- 'renown', with the derivatives Clutamus 'Very Famous' and Cloutaius, and the composite Vesuclotus '(He who have) Good Fame'), Medamus, Boutius, Lovesius, Pintamus, Ladronus, Apilus, Andamus (maybe to Celtic and-amo- 'The Undermost'), Bloena, Aebura/Ebura, Albura, Arius, Caelius and Caelicus (to Celtic *kaylo- 'omen'), Celtiatis, Talavius, Viriatus, among others.
A certain number of personal names are also exclusive to Gallaecia, among these Artius (to Celtic *arktos 'bear'), Nantia and Nantius (to Celtic *nant- 'fight'), Cambavius (to Celtic *kambo- 'bent'), Vecius (probably Celtic, from
Very characteristic of the peoples of the Castro culture (Gallaecians and western Astures) is their onomastic formula. Whilst the onomastic formula among the Celtiberians usually is composed by a first name followed by a patronymic expressed as a genitive, and sometimes a reference to the gens, the Castro people complete name was composed as this:
- First Name + Patronymic (genitive) + [optional reference to the populi or nation (nominative)] + 'castello' or its short form '>' + origin of the person = name of the castro (ablative)
So, a name such as Caeleo Cadroiolonis F Cilenvs > Berisamo would stand for Cailios son of Cadroyolo, a Cilenian, from the hill-fort named Berisamos.[43] Other similar anthroponymical patterns are known referring mostly to persons born in the regions in-between the rivers Navia in Asturias and Douro in Portugal, the ancient Gallaecia, among them:
- Nicer Clvtosi > Cariaca Principis Albionum: Nicer son of Clutosius, from (the hill-fort known as) Cariaca, prince of the Albions.
- Apana Ambolli F Celtica Supertam(arica)> [---]obri: Apana daughter of Ambollus, a Super-Tamaric Celtic, from (the hill-fort known as) [-]obri.
- Anceitvs Vacci F Limicvs > Talabric(a): Ancetos son of Vaccios, a Limic, from (the hill-fort known as) Talabriga.
- Bassvs Medami F Grovvs > Verio: Bassos son of Medamos, a Grovian, from (the hill-fort known as) Verio.
- Ladronu[s] Dovai Bra[ca]rus Castell[o] Durbede: Ladronos son of Dovaios, a Bracaran, from the castle Durbede.
Religion
Religious objects | |
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The religious pantheon was extensive, and included local and pan-Celtic gods. Among the later ones the most relevant was
More numerous are the votive inscriptions dedicated to the autochthonous
The largest number of indigenous deities found in the whole Iberian Peninsula are located in the Galician and Lusitanian regions and models proposing a fragmented and disorganized pantheon have been discarded, since the number of deities occurring together is similar to other Celtic peoples in Europe and ancient civilizations.[citation needed][dubious ]
Cosus, a male deity, was worshipped in the coastal areas where the Celtici dwelt, from the region around Aveiro, Porto and to Northern Galicia, but seldom inland, with the exception of the El Bierzo region in Leon, where this cult has been attributed[49] to the known arrival of Galician miners, most notably from among the Celtici Supertamarici. This deity has not been recorded in the same areas as Bandua, Reue and Nabia deities occur, and El Bierzo follows the same pattern as in the coast. From a theonymical point of view, this suggest some ethno-cultural differences between the coast and inland areas. With the exception of the Grovii people, Pomponius Mela stated that all the populi were Celtic and Cosus was not worshipped there. Pliny also rejected that the Grovii were Celtic, he considered them to have a Greek origin.
Bandua is closely associated with Roman Mars and less frequently worshipped by women. The religious nature of Cosus had many similarities with that of Bandua. Bandua had a warlike character and a defender of local communities. The worship of these two gods do not overlap but rather complement each other, occupying practically the whole of the western territory of the Iberian Peninsula. Supporting the idea, no evidence has been found of any women worshipping at any of the monuments dedicated to Cosus. Cosus sites are found near settlements, such as in Sanfins and the settlement near A Coruña, Galicia.
Nabia had double invocation, one male and one female. The supreme Nabia is related to Jupiter and another incarnation of the deity, identified with Diana, Juno or Victoria or others from the Roman pantheon, linked to the protection and defence of the community or health, wealth and fertility. Bandua, Reue,
Funerary rites are mostly unknown except at few places, such as Cividade de Terroso, where cremation was practised.
Major sites
World heritage candidates in 2010.
- Northern Portugal
- Northern Portugal
- Northern Portugal
- Northern Portugal
- Northern Portugal
- Northern Portugal
- Northern Portugal
- Santa Trega, A Guarda, Galicia
- San Cibrao de Las, Ourense, Galicia
- Northern Portugal
- Northern Portugal
- Northern Portugal
- Northern Portugal
- Northern Portugal
- Castromao, Ourense, Galicia
- Northern Portugal
- Northern Portugal
- Northern Portugal
- Northern Portugal
- Northern Portugal
- Northern Portugal
- Coruña, Galicia (Spain)
- Central Portugal
- Viladonga, Lugo, Galicia
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Hill fort of Baroña, Porto do Son, Galicia
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Detail of Citânia de Sta. Luzia, Areosa, Norte Region
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Baths or sauna at Punta dos Prados hill-fort, Ortigueira, Galicia
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Castro do Padrão,Norte Region
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Partial view of a castro atCoaña, Asturias
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Citânia de Sanfins,Norte Region
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A romanized castro, at Viladonga, Castro de Rei, Galicia
Other Castros in Asturias (Spain):
Castro | Place | Dating | Comments |
Arganticaeni | Piloña | ||
Abándames | |||
Almades, Les | Siero | ||
Alto Castro | Somiedo | ||
Atalaya de Tazones | Villaviciosa | ||
Barrera, La | Carreño | ||
Cabo Blanco, El | El Franco | Castro at sea | |
Camoca | Villaviciosa | ||
Canterona, La | Siero | ||
Caravia | Caravia | ||
Castelo, El | Boal | ||
Castelo, El | Villanueva de Oscos | ||
Castelón, El | Illano | ||
Castello | Tapia | ||
Castellois, Os | Illano | ||
Castellón, El | El Franco | Castro at sea | |
Castellón, El | El Franco | Castro at sea | |
Castiello, El | Langreo | ||
Castiello | Siero | Tiñana. | |
Castiello, El | Cangas del Narcea | ||
Castiello de la Marina | Villaviciosa | ||
Castiellu de Ambás | Villaviciosa | ||
Castro del Castiellu de Llagú | Oviedo | ||
Castiellu de Lué | Villaviciosa | ||
Castillos de Pereira | Tapia | ||
Castrillón | Castrillón | Castro at sea | |
Castrillón, El | Boal | ||
Castro, El | Taramundi | Gold | |
Castromior | San Martín de Oscos | ||
Castromourán | Vegadeo | ||
Castrón, El o de Arancedo | El Franco | ||
Castros, Los | Tapia | ||
Chao Sanmartín | Grandas de Salime | ||
Coaña | Coaña |
||
Cogollina, La | |||
Cogolla, La | Oviedo | ||
Corno, El | Castropol | Castro at sea | |
Corona, La | El Franco | ||
Corona, La | Ribera de Arriba | ||
Corona, La | Somiedo | ||
Corona del Castro, La | El Franco | ||
Corona de Costru, La | Sobrescobio | ||
Coronas, Las | Tapia | ||
Cueto, El | Ribera de Arriba | ||
Cueto, El | Siero | ||
Cuitu, El | Siero | ||
Curbiellu | Villaviciosa | ||
Cuturulo o de Valabelleiro | Grandas de Salime | ||
Deilán | San Martín de Oscos | ||
Doña Palla | Pravia | ||
Escrita, La | Boal | ||
Espinaredo | Piloña | ||
Esteiro, El | Tapia | ||
Ferreira | Santa Eulalia de Oscos | ||
Foncalada | Villaviciosa | ||
Fuentes | Villaviciosa | ||
Illaso | Villayón | Albion | |
Lagar | Boal | ||
Lineras | Santa Eulalia de Oscos | ||
Mazos, Los | Boal | ||
Medal | Coaña | Castro at Sea | |
Meredo | Vegadeo | ||
Miravalles | Villaviciosa | ||
Mohías | Coaña | ||
Molexón | Vegadeo | ||
Montouto | Vegadeo | ||
Morillón | Vegadeo | ||
Muries, Les | Siero | ||
Noega | Gijón | Castro at sea | |
Obetao | Oviedo | ||
Olivar | Villaviciosa | ||
Ouria | Boal | ||
Pedreres, Les | Ribera de Arriba | ||
Pendia | Boal | ||
Penzol | Vegadeo | ||
Peña Castiello | Castrillón | ||
Peña del Conchéu, La | Riosa | ||
Picón, El | Tapia | ||
Picu Castiellu | Langreo | ||
Pico Castiello | Oviedo | ||
Pico Castiello | Ribera de Arriba | ||
Pico Castiello | Ribera de Arriba | ||
Pico Castiello | Riosa | ||
Pico Castiello, El | Siero | ||
Picu Castiello, El | Siero | ||
Picu Cervera | Belmonte de Miranda | ||
Picu Castiellu de Moriyón | Villaviciosa | ||
Picu da Mina, El | San Martín de Oscos | ||
Pico El Cogollo | Oviedo | ||
Piñera | Navia | in Peña Piñera at 1069 m | |
Prahúa | Candamo | ||
Punta de la Figueira, La | Castro at sea | ||
Remonguila, La | Somiedo | ||
Represas | Tapia de Casariego | ||
Riera, La | Colunga | ||
Salcido | San Tirso de Abres | ||
San Ḷḷuis | Allande | Gold | |
San Cruz | Pesoz | ||
San Isidro | Pesoz | Gold | |
San Pelayo | San Martín de Oscos | ||
Sobia | Teverga | before 4th century BC | |
Teifaros | Navia | Castro at sea. | |
Torre, La | Siero | ||
Trasdelcastro | Somiedo | ||
Viladaelle | Vegadeo | ||
Villarín del Piorno | San Martín de Oscos |
The Cariaca Castro is not identified, as only a small amount of Castros are called with his old names (like Coaña). Important Castros in the Albion Territory, near the Nicer stele and Navia and Eo Rivers are: Coaña, Chao de Samartín, Pendía and Taramundi.
See also
- List of castros in Galicia
- Celtic place-names in Galicia
- List of Celtic place names in Portugal
- Celts
- Gallaeci
- Galician Institute for Celtic Studies
- Gallaecian language
- Hispano-Celtic languages
Notes
- ^ Rodríguez-Corral, J. (2009): 13.
- ^ Comendador Rey, Beatriz. "Space and Memory at the Mouth of the River Alla (Galicia, Spain)" (PDF). Conceptualising Space and Place: On the role of agency, memory and identity in the construction of space from the Upper Palaeolithic to the Iron Age in Europe. Archaeopress. Retrieved 26 April 2011.
- ^ Armando Coelho Ferreira da Silva A Cultura Castreja no Noroeste de Portugal Museu Arqueológico da Citânia de Sanfins, 1986
- ^ Rodríguez-Corral, J. (2009): 17-18.
- ^ Rodríguez-Corral, J. (2009): 15.
- ^ Rodríguez-Corral, J. (2009): 11.
- ^ In 2006 a 9th-century BCE fortified factory for bronze production was discovered, and destroyed after being briefly studied, in Punta Langosteira, near modern day A Coruña. Cf. http://www.manuelgago.org/blog/index.php/2010/11/03/o-drama-historico-do-porto-exterior-da-coruna/
- ^ Rodríguez-Corral, J. (2009): 17.
- ^ Rodríguez-Corral, J. (2009): 21.
- ^ Rodríguez-Corral, J. (2009): 14.
- ^ This is the case of Neixón Pequeno, abandoned after the construction of the nearby Neixón Grande hill-fort (Rodríguez Corral, J 2009: 34)
- ^ Rodríguez Corral, J 2009: 177-180.
- ^ “Now some of the peoples that dwell next to the Durius River live, it is said, after the manner of the Laconians—using anointing-rooms twice a day and taking baths in vapours that rise from heated stones, bathing in cold water, and eating only one meal a day; and that in a cleanly and simple way.” (Strabo, III.3.3)
- ^ The terms oppida and urbs are used by classical authors such as Pliny the Elder and Pomponius Mela for describing the major fortified town of NW Iberia.
- ^ Rodríguez Corral (2009), p. 57
- ^ Archaeologists have attributed to these expeditions and campaigns the partial destruction or abandonment of some of the largest oppida of northern Portugal (cf. Arias Vilas 1992: 18 and 23).
- ^ (cf. Arias Vilas 1992: 67).
- ISBN 978-84-460-2260-2.
- ISBN 978-84-460-2260-2.
- ^ ”the mountaineers, for two-thirds of the year, eat acorns, which they have first dried and crushed, and then ground up and made into a bread that may be stored away for a long time.” (Strabo III.3.7)
- ^ Rodriguez Corral 2009: 81.
- ^ ”Again, up to the time of Brutus they used boats of tanned leather on account of the flood-tides and the shoal-waters, but now, already, even the dug-out canoes are rare.” (Strabo, III.3.7.)
- ISBN 978-84-936613-3-5.
- ^ González García, F. J. (2007). p. 261.
- ISBN 84-89138-71-0. p. 131.
- ^ González Ruibal, Alfredo (2004) . p. 140-144.
- ^ García Quintela (2005) pp. 529-530.
- ^ cf. Romero, Bieito. Xeometrías Máxicas de Galicia. Ir Indo. 2009. ISBD 978-84-7680-639-5.
- ^ a b González Ruibal, Alberto (2004).
- ^ González Ruibal, Alberto (2004) pp. 123-124.
- ^ González Ruibal, Alberto (2004) p. 135.
- ^ González Ruibal, Alberto (2004) pp. 126-133.
- ^ González Ruibal, Alberto (2004) p. 154-155.
- ^ cf. Pliny the Elder. Natural History, III.27-28.
- ^ González García, F. J. (2007), pp. 336-337.
- ^ cf. Hispania Epigraphica on-line data-base.
- ISBN 84-7800-818-7. pp. 374-380
- ISBN 1-85109-440-7.
- ^ Curchin, Leonard A. (2008). "The Toponyms of the Roman Galicia: New Study". Cuadernos de Estudios Gallegos. LV (121): 109–136. Retrieved 22 December 2010.
- ISBN 978-84-9750-794-3.
- ^ Cf. Luján Martinez (2006) p. 717-721.
- ^ Cf. Zeidler, Jürgen (2007) Celto-Roman Contact Names in Galicia, p. 46-52, in Kremer, Dieter, ed. (2007). Onomástica galega I. Santiago de Compostela: Universidade de Santiago de Compostela.
- ISBN 978-84-9750-794-3.
- ^ Olivares Pedreño (2002) p. 203-218.
- ^ Brañas Abad, Rosa. Entre mitos, ritos y santuarios. Los dioses Galaico-Lusitanos. p. 402, in González García (2007).
- ^ Marco Simon, F. (2005) p. 302-303.
- ^ Luján Martínez (2006) p. 722.
- ^ Armada, Xosé-Lois; García-Vuelta, Óscar. "Os atributos do guerreiro, as ofrendas da comunidade. A interpretación dos torques a través da iconografía". CÁTEDRA. Revista eumesa de estudios. Retrieved 16 July 2015.
- ^ Olivares Pedreño, Juan Carlos (2007). "Hipótesis Sobre El Culto Al Dios Cossue En El Bierzo (León): Explotaciones Mineras y Migraciones" (PDF). Paleohispanistica. 7: 143–160. Retrieved 2 May 2012.
Bibliography
- Arias Vila, F. (1992). A Romanización de Galicia. A Nosa Terra. 1992. ISBN 84-604-3279-3.
- Armada, Xosé-Lois; García-Vuelta, Óscar. "Os atributos do guerreiro, as ofrendas da comunidade. A interpretación dos torques a través da iconografía". CÁTEDRA. Revista eumesa de estudios. Retrieved 16 July 2015.
- Ayán Vila, Xurxo (2008). A Round Iron Age: The Circular House in the Hillforts of the Northwestern Iberian Peninsula Archived 2011-06-24 at the Wayback Machine. In e-Keltoi, Volume 6: 903-1003. UW System Board of Regents, 2008. ISSN 1540-4889.
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- González García, F. J. (ed.) (2007). Los pueblos de la Galicia céltica. AKAL. 2007. ISBN 978-84-460-2260-2.
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- Olivares Pedreño, Juan Carlos (2002). Los dioses de la Hispania celtica. Madrid: Universitat de Alacant. ISBN 9788495983008.
- Parcero-Oubiña C. and Cobas-Fernández, I (2004). Iron Age Archaeology of the Northwest Iberian Peninsula. In e-Keltoi, Volume 6: 1-72. UW System Board of Regents, 2004. ISSN 1540-4889.
- Prósper, B. M. (2002) Lénguas y religiones prerromanas del occidente de la península ibérica. Universidad de Salamanca. 2002. ISBN 84-7800-818-7.
- Rodríguez-Corral, Javier (2009). A Galicia Castrexa. Lóstrego. 2009. ISBN 978-84-936613-3-5.
- Romero, Bieito (2009). Xeometrías Máxicas de Galicia. Ir Indo. 2009. ISBN 978-84-7680-639-5.
- Silva, A. J. M. (2012), Vivre au-delà du fleuve de l'Oubli. Portrait de la communauté villageoise du Castro do Vieito au moment de l'intégration du NO de la péninsule ibérique dans l'orbis Romanum (estuaire du Rio Lima, NO du Portugal) (in French), Oxford, United Kingdom: Archaeopress
External links
- Silva, A. J. M. (2009), Vivre au déla du fleuve de l'Oubli. Portrait de la communauté villageoise du Castro do Vieito, au moment de l'intégration du NO de la péninsule ibérique dans l'orbis romanum (estuaire du Rio Lima, NO du Portugal), Phd Thesis presented at Coimbra University in March 2009, 188p. PDF version.