Catholic Church in the 20th century
The Roman Catholic Church in the 20th century responded to the challenge of increasing
Catholic social teaching, rooted in the 1891 encyclical
Catholic social teaching
Rerum novarum
The
In Rerum novarum, Leo set out the Catholic Church's response to the social instability and labor conflict that had arisen in the wake of industrialization and had led to the rise of socialism. The Pope taught that the role of the State is to promote social justice through the protection of rights, while the Church must speak out on social issues in order to teach correct social principles and ensure class harmony. He restated the Church's long-standing teaching regarding the crucial importance of private property rights, but recognised, in one of the best-known passages of the encyclical, that the free operation of market forces must be tempered by moral considerations:
Let the working man and the employer make free agreements, and in particular let them agree freely as to the wages; nevertheless, there underlies a dictate of natural justice more imperious and ancient than any bargain between man and man, namely, that wages ought not to be insufficient to support a frugal and well-behaved wage-earner. If through necessity or fear of a worse evil the workman accept harder conditions because an employer or contractor will afford him no better, he is made the victim of force and injustice.[2]
Rerum novarum is remarkable for its vivid depiction of the plight of the late 19th-century urban poor and for its condemnation of unrestricted capitalism. Among the remedies it prescribed were the formation of trade unions and the introduction of collective bargaining, particularly as an alternative to state intervention. Rerum novarum also recognized that the poor have a special status in consideration of social issues: the modern Catholic principle of the "preferential option for the poor" and the notion that God is on the side of the poor found their first expression in this document.[3][4]
Quadragesimo anno
Forty years after Rerum novarum, and more than a year into the
Unlike Leo, who addressed mainly the condition of workers, Pius XI concentrated on the ethical implications of the social and economic order. He called for the reconstruction of the social order based on the principle of solidarity and subsidiarity.[5] He also noted major dangers for human freedom and dignity, arising from both unrestrained capitalism and totalitarian communism.
Pius XI reiterated Leo's defence of private property rights and collective bargaining, and repeated his contention that blind economic forces cannot create a just society on their own:
Just as the unity of human society cannot be founded on an opposition of classes, so also the right ordering of economic life cannot be left to a free competition of forces. For from this source, as from a poisoned spring, have originated and spread all the errors of individualist economic teaching. Destroying through forgetfulness or ignorance the social and moral character of economic life, it held that economic life must be considered and treated as altogether free from and independent of public authority, because in the market, i.e., in the free struggle of competitors, it would have a principle of self direction which governs it much more perfectly than would the intervention of any created intellect. But free competition, while justified and certainly useful provided it is kept within certain limits, clearly cannot direct economic life ...[6]
Quadragesimo Anno also supported state intervention to mediate labor-management conflicts (a reference to the economic system which Mussolini was attempting to establish in Italy at the time), and introduced the concept of subsidiarity into Catholic thought.
Prior to Quadragesimo anno, some Catholics had wondered whether Leo XIII's condemnation of radical left-wing politics in Rerum novarum extended only to outright
Pius XII
The social teachings of
The Catholic Church exercised a prominent role in shaping America's labor movement. In 1933, two American Catholics, Dorothy Day and Peter Maurin, founded a new Catholic peace group, the Catholic Worker that would embody their ideals of pacifism, commitment to the poor, and to fundamental change in American society. They published a newspaper of the same name for years.
Anti-clericalism
In Latin America, a succession of anti-clerical regimes came to power beginning in the 1830s.[9] In the 1920s and 1930s, the Catholic Church was subjected to unprecedented persecution in Mexico, as well as in Europe in Spain and the Soviet Union. Pope Pius XI called this the "terrible triangle".[10]
The "harsh persecution short of total annihilation of the clergy, monks, and nuns and other people associated with the Church",[11] began in 1918 and continued well into the 1930s. The Civil War in Spain started in 1936, during which thousands of churches were destroyed, thirteen bishops and some 6,832 clergy and religious Spaniards were assassinated.[12][13]
After the widespread Church persecutions in
Mexico
In Mexico, the Calles Law eventually led to the "worst guerilla war in Latin American History", the Cristero War.[15] Between 1926 and 1934, over 3,000 priests were exiled or assassinated.[16][17] In an effort to prove that "God would not defend the Church", Calles ordered Church desecrations in which services were mocked, nuns were raped, and captured priests were shot.[15]
Calles was eventually deposed.[15] Despite the persecution, the Church in Mexico continued to grow. A 2000 census reported that 88 percent of Mexicans identify as Catholic.[18]
Spain
During the Spanish Civil War, Spanish republicans and anarchists targeted priests and nuns as symbols of conservatism, murdering large numbers of them.[19] Confiscation of Church properties and restrictions on people's religious freedoms have generally accompanied secularist and Marxist-leaning governmental reforms.[20]
Soviet Union
Worried by the persecution of Christians in the
The harsh persecution continued well into the 1930s. The Soviet government executed and exiled many clerics, monks and laymen, confiscating Church implements "for victims of famine", and closing many churches.[22] Yet according to an official report based on the census of 1936, some 55% of Soviet citizens identified themselves openly as religious, while others possibly concealed their belief.[22]
In other countries
Eastern Europe
Following the Soviet doctrine regarding the exercise of religion, postwar Communist governments in Eastern Europe severely restricted religious freedoms. Even though some clerics collaborated with the Communist regimes during their decades of power,[23] from the late 1980s the Church's resistance and the leadership of Pope John Paul II have been credited with hastening the downfall in 1991 of communist governments across Europe.[24]
China
The
Latin America
General Juan Perón's Argentina and Fidel Castro's Cuba also engaged in extensive anti-clericalism, confiscating Catholic properties.[28][29]
In 1954, under the regime of General Juan Perón, Argentina saw extensive destruction of churches, denunciations of clergy and confiscation of Catholic schools as Perón attempted to extend state control over national institutions.[28] Cuba, under atheist Fidel Castro, succeeded in reducing the Church's ability to work by deporting the archbishop and 150 Spanish priests, discriminating against Catholics in public life and education and refusing to accept them as members of the Communist Party.[29] The subsequent flight of 300,000 people from the island also helped to diminish the Church there.[29]
Response to authoritarianism
Authoritarianism or Fascism describes certain related political regimes in 20th-century Europe, especially the Nazi Germany of Hitler, the authoritarian Soviet Union, the Fascist Italy of Mussolini and the falangist Spain of Franco.
Pope Pius XI was moderately skeptical of Italian Fascism.
To Pope Pius XI, Dollfuss in Austria was the ideal politician realising Quadragesimo anno.
Nazi Germany
In the 1937 encyclical Mit brennender Sorge, drafted by the future Pope Pius XII,[30] Pope Pius XI warned Catholics that antisemitism is incompatible with Christianity.[31] Read from the pulpits of all German Catholic churches, it described Hitler as an insane and arrogant prophet and was the first official denunciation of Nazism made by any major organization.[32] Nazi persecution of the Church in Germany then began by "outright repression" and "staged prosecutions of monks for homosexuality, with the maximum of publicity."[33] When Dutch bishops protested against deportation of Jews in the Netherlands, the Nazi's responded with even more severe measures.[32]
On 20 July 1933, the Vatican signed an agreement with Germany, the
Despite a number of condemnations of atrocities committed during World War II, Pope Pius XII has been criticized for not having explicitly spoken out against the Holocaust. Although he never defended himself against such criticism, there is evidence that he chose to keep his public pronouncements circumspect while acting covertly to assist Jews seeking refuge from the Holocaust. Although Pius XII was exhorted by the British government and the Polish government-in-exile to condemn Nazi atrocities directly, he declined to do so out of concern that such pronouncements would only instigate further persecution by the Nazis. These sentiments were based on opinions expressed to him by bishops in Germany and Poland. When Dutch bishops protested against the wartime deportation of Jews, the Nazis responded by increasing deportations[32] rounding up 92 converts including Edith Stein who were then deported and murdered.[48] "The brutality of the retaliation made an enormous impression on Pius XII."[48][49] In Poland, the Nazis murdered over 2,500 monks and priests and even more were imprisoned.[33] In the Soviet Union, an even more severe persecution occurred.[33]
After the war, Pius XII's efforts to protect their people were recognised by prominent Jews including Albert Einstein and Rabbi Isaac Herzog.[50] However, the Church has also been accused by some of encouraging centuries of antisemitism and Pius himself of not doing enough to stop Nazi atrocities.[51][52] Prominent members of the Jewish community have contradicted these criticisms.[53] The Israeli historian Pinchas Lapide interviewed war survivors and concluded that Pius XII "was instrumental in saving at least 700,000, but probably as many as 860,000 Jews from certain death at Nazi hands". Some historians dispute this estimate[54] while others consider Pinchas Lapide's work to be "the definitive work by a Jewish scholar" on the holocaust.[55] Even so, in 2000 Pope John Paul II on behalf of all people, apologized to Jews by inserting a prayer at the Western Wall that read "We're deeply saddened by the behavior of those in the course of history who have caused the children of God to suffer, and asking your forgiveness, we wish to commit ourselves to genuine brotherhood with the people of the Covenant."[56] This papal apology, one of many issued by Pope John Paul II for past human and Church failings throughout history, was especially significant because John Paul II emphasized Church guilt for, and the Second Vatican Council's condemnation of, anti-Semitism.[57] The papal letter We Remember: A Reflection on the Shoah, urged Catholics to repent "of past errors and infidelities" and "renew the awareness of the Hebrew roots of their faith."[57][58]
In Austria, since 1938 part of Nazi Germany, in particular, the Catholic resistance against National Socialism was active very early on. Many of the Catholic resistance groups were loyal to the House of
In Poland, the Nazis murdered over 2500 monks and priests while even more were sent to concentration camps.
Prominent members of the Jewish community, including Golda Meir, Albert Einstein, Moshe Sharett and Rabbi Isaac Herzog contradicted the criticisms and spoke highly of Pius' efforts to protect Jews, while others such as rabbi David G. Dalin noted that "hundreds of thousands" of Jews were saved by the Church.[69]
Regarding the matter, historian Derek Holmes wrote, "There is no doubt that the Catholic districts, resisted the lure of National Socialism Nazism far better than the Protestant ones."[70] Pope Pius XI declared – Mit brennender Sorge – that Fascist governments had hidden "pagan intentions" and expressed the irreconcilability of the Catholic position and Totalitarian Fascist State Worship, which placed the nation above God and fundamental human rights and dignity. His declaration that "Spiritually, [Christians] are all Semites" prompted the Nazis to give him the title "Chief Rabbi of the Christian World".[71]
Catholic priests were executed in concentration camps alongside Jews; for example, 2,600 Catholic Priests were imprisoned in Dachau, and 2,000 of them were executed. A further 2,700 Polish priests were executed (a quarter of all Polish priests), and 5,350 Polish nuns were either displaced, imprisoned, or executed.
Independent State of Croatia
In dismembered Yugoslavia, the Church favored the Nazi-installed Croatian Roman Catholic fascist Ustaše regime due to its anti-communist ideology and for the potential to reinstate Catholic influence in the region following the dissolution of Austria-Hungary.[75] Pius XII was a long-standing supporter of Croat nationalism; he hosted a national pilgrimage to Rome in November 1939 for the cause of the canonization of Nikola Tavelić, and largely "confirmed the Ustashe perception of history" writes John Cornwell.[76] The Church however did not formally recognize the Independent State of Croatia (NDH).[75]
Despite being informed of the regime's genocide against Orthodox Serbs, Jews and other non-Croats, the Church did not publicly speak out against it, preferring to exert pressure through diplomacy.[77] In assessing the Vatican's position, historian Jozo Tomasevich writes that "it seems the Catholic Church fully supported the [Ustaše] regime and its policies."[78]
After the war, many Ustaše fled the country with the help of Father Krunoslav Draganović, secretary of the Pontifical Croatian College of St. Jerome in Rome. Pius XII protected dictator Ante Pavelić after World War II, gave him "refuge in the Vatican properties in Rome", and assisted in his flight to South America; Pavelić and Pius XII shared the goal of a Catholic state in the Balkans and were unified in their opposition to the rising Communist state under Tito.[79]
Latin America
South America, historically Catholic, has experienced a large Evangelical and Pentecostal infusion in the 20th century due to the influx of Christian missionaries from abroad. For example: Brazil, South America's largest country, is the largest Catholic country in the world, and at the same time is the largest Evangelical country in the world[citation needed] (based on population). Some of the largest Christian congregations in the world are found in Brazil.[citation needed]
China
In 1939,
Second Vatican Council
A major event of the
The Catholic Church engaged in a comprehensive process of reform following the Second Vatican Council (1962–65).[83] Intended as a continuation of Vatican I, under Pope John XXIII the council developed into an engine of modernisation.[83] It was tasked with making the historical teachings of the Church clear to a modern world, and made pronouncements on topics including the nature of the church, the mission of the laity and religious freedom.[83] The council approved a revision of the liturgy and permitted the Latin liturgical rites to use vernacular languages as well as Latin during mass and other sacraments.[84] Efforts by the Church to improve Christian unity became a priority.[85] In addition to finding common ground on certain issues with Protestant churches, the Catholic Church has discussed the possibility of unity with the Eastern Orthodox Church.[86]
On 11 October 1962 Pope John XXIII opened the Second Vatican Council, the 21st ecumenical council of the Catholic Church. The council was "pastoral" in nature, emphasising and clarifying already defined dogma, revising liturgical practices, and providing guidance for articulating traditional Church teachings in contemporary times. The council is perhaps best known for its instructions that the Mass may be celebrated in the vernacular as well as in Latin.
At the Second Vatican Council (1962–1965) the debate on papal primacy and authority re-emerged[citation needed], and in the Dogmatic Constitution on the Church Lumen gentium, the Roman Catholic Church's teaching on the authority of the Pope, bishops and councils was further elaborated. Vatican II sought to correct the unbalanced ecclesiology left behind by Vatican I. The result is the body of teaching about the papacy and episcopacy contained in the Dogmatic Constitution on the Church, Lumen gentium.
Vatican II reaffirmed everything Vatican I taught about papal primacy and infallibility, but it added important points about bishops. Bishops, it says, are not "vicars of the Roman Pontiff". Rather, in governing their local churches they are "vicars and legates of Christ".[87] Together, they form a body, a "college", whose head is the pope. This episcopal college is responsible for the well-being of the Universal Church. Here in a nutshell are the basic elements of the council's much-discussed communio ecclesiology, which affirms the importance of local churches and the doctrine of collegiality.
In a key passage about collegiality, Vatican II teaches: "The order of bishops is the successor to the college of the apostles in their role as teachers and pastors, and in it the apostolic college is perpetuated. Together with their head, the Supreme Pontiff, and never apart from him, they have supreme and full authority over the Universal Church; but this power cannot be exercised without the agreement of the Roman Pontiff".[88] Much of the present discussion of papal primacy is concerned with exploring the implications of this passage.
Chapter 3 of the dogmatic constitution on the Church of Vatican Council I (Pastor aeternus) is the principal document of the Magisterium about the content and nature of the primatial power of the Roman Pontiff. Chapter 4 is a development and defining of one particular characteristic of this primatial power, namely the Pope's supreme teaching authority, i.e. when the Pope speaks ex cathedra he teaches the doctrine of the faith infallibly.
Reforms
Changes to old rites and ceremonies following Vatican II produced a variety of responses. Some stopped going to church, while others tried to preserve the old liturgy with the help of sympathetic priests.
A new Codex Juris Canonici –
The Catholic Church initiated a comprehensive process of reform under
Modernism and Liberation theology
In the 1960s, growing social awareness and politicization in the Church in Latin America gave birth to liberation theology. The Peruvian priest, Gustavo Gutiérrez, became a primary theorist and, in 1979, the bishops' conference in Mexico officially declared the Latin American Church's "preferential option for the poor".[95] Archbishop Óscar Romero, a supporter of the movement, became the region's most famous contemporary martyr in 1980, when he was murdered by forces allied with the government of El Salvador while saying Mass.[96] Both Pope John Paul II and Pope Benedict XVI (as Cardinal Ratzinger) denounced the movement.[97] The Brazilian theologian-priest Leonardo Boff was twice ordered to cease publishing and teaching.[95] Pope John Paul II was criticized for his severity in dealing with proponents of the movement, but he maintained that the Church, in its efforts to champion the poor, should not do so by advocating violence or engaging in partisan politics.[98] The movement is still alive in Latin America today, although the Church now faces the challenge of Pentecostal revival in much of the region.[97]
Sexuality and gender issues
The
Ordination of women
Efforts to lead the Church to consider the ordination of women led Pope John Paul II to issue two documents to explain Church teaching. Mulieris dignitatem was issued in 1988 to clarify women's equally important and complementary role in the work of the Church.[101][102] Then in 1994, Ordinatio Sacerdotalis explained that the Church extends ordination only to men in order to follow the example of Jesus, who chose only men for this specific duty.[103][104][105]
Humanae vitae
The
Modern response to Protestantism
Well into the 20th century, Catholics—even if no longer resorting to persecution—still defined Protestants as heretics. Thus, Hilaire Belloc – in his time one of the most conspicuous speakers for Catholicism in Britain – was outspoken about the "Protestant heresy". He also defined Islam as "A Christian heresy", on the grounds that Muslims accept many of the tenets of Christianity but deny the godhood of Jesus (see Hilaire Belloc#On Islam).
In the second half of the century – and especially in the wake of
Among the doctrines of Protestantism that the Catholic Church considers heretical are the beliefs that: the Bible is the only source and rule of faith ("sola scriptura"), faith alone can lead to salvation ("sola fide"), and no sacramental, ministerial priesthood is attained by ordination, but there is a universal priesthood of all believers.
Catholic-Orthodox dialogue
Ecumenism broadly refers to movements between Christian groups to establish a degree of unity through dialogue. Ecumenism is derived from
Over the last century, a number of moves have been made to reconcile the
Some of the most difficult questions in relations with the ancient
to note but a few) as well as practical matters, such as the concrete exercise of the claim to papal primacy and how to ensure that ecclesiastical union would not result in absorption of the smaller Churches by the Latin component of the much larger Catholic Church (the most numerous single religious denomination in the world). Both parties wanted to avoid the stifling or abandonment of the other churches' rich theological, liturgical and cultural heritage.With respect to Catholic relations with Protestant communities, certain commissions were established to foster dialogue, and documents have been published that address points of doctrinal unity, such as the Joint Declaration on the Doctrine of Justification produced with the Lutheran World Federation in 1999.
Joint Theological Commission
The Joint International Commission for Theological Dialogue Between the Catholic Church and the Orthodox Church first met in Rhodes in 1980.
Other moves toward reconciliation
In June 1995,
In May 1999,
- 1901 – Nazarene John Diaz goes to Cape Verde Islands;[117] Maude Cary sails for Morocco; Oriental Missionary Society founded by Charles Cowman (his wife is the compiler of popular devotional book Streams in the Desert); Missionary James Chalmers killed and eaten by cannibals in Papua New Guinea[118]
- 1902 – Swiss members of the Plymouth Brethren Christian Missions in Many Lands (CMML) enter Laos;[119] California Yearly Meeting of Friends opens work in Guatemala
- 1903 – Church of the Nazarene enters Mexico[120]
- 1904 – William Eugene Blackstonebegins teaching that the world has already been evangelized, citing Acts 2:5, 8:4, Mark 16:20 and Colossians 1:23
- 1904 – Welsh revival
- 1905 – Samuel Logan Brengle. Later he would become a missionary to the Belgian Congo and then first mission secretary of the Norwegian Pentecostal movement.[121]
- 1905 French law on the separation of Church and State
- 1906 – The Evangelical Alliance Mission (TEAM) opens work in Venezuelawith T. J. Bach and John Christiansen
- 1906 – Albert Schweitzer publishes The Quest of the Historical Jesus (English translation 1910)
- 1906 – Biblia Hebraica
- 1906–1909 – Azusa Street Revival in Los Angeles, CA begins modern Pentecostal movement
- 1907 – Massive revival meetings in Korea;[122] Harmon Schmelzenbach sails for Africa;[123] Presbyterians and Methodists open Union Theological Seminary in Manila, Philippines; Bolivian Indian Mission founded by George Allen[124]
- 1907–1912 – Japanese Orthodox Church
- 1908 – Sacred Congregation of Propaganda[125]
- 1908 – Gospel Missionary Union opens work in Colombia with Charles Chapman and John Funk; Assemblies of God enter Rome and southern Italy as well as Egypt[126]
- 1909 – Pentecostal movement reaches Chile through ministry of American Methodist Willis Hoover[127]
- 1909 – Scofield Reference Bible
- 1909–1911 – The Rosicrucian Fellowship, an international association of Esoteric Christian mystics, founded at Mount Ecclesia
- 1910 – ecumenical cooperation in missions[129]
- 1910 – ecumenical movement; 5-point statement of the Presbyterian General Assembly, also used by Fundamentalists
- 1910–1915 – The Fundamentals, a 12-volume collection of essays by 64 British and American scholars and preachers, a foundation of Fundamentalism
- 1911 –
- 1912 – Conference of British Missionary Societies formed;[131] International Review of Missions begins publication[122]
- 1913 – African-American Eliza George sails from New York for Liberia;[132] William Whiting Borden dies in Egypt while preparing to take the gospel to the Muslims in China[133]
- 1913 – Catholic Encyclopedia
- 1914 – Large-scale revival movement in Uganda; C.T. Studd reports a revival movement in the Congo[134]
- 1914 – Iglesia ni Cristo incorporated in the Philippines
- 1914 – Welsh Church Act 1914
- 1914–1918 – World War I numerous missionaries in Africa and Asia in British, French, German and Belgian colonies are expelled or detained for the duration of the war, if their nation was at war with the colonial authority
- 1915 – Founded in 1913 in Nanjing, China as a women's Christian college, Ginling College officially opens with eight students and six teachers. It was supported by four missions: the Northern Baptists, the Christian Church (Disciples of Christ), the Methodists, and the Presbyterians.[135]
- 1915–1917 – Armenian genocide
- 1916 – Rhenish missionaries are forced to leave Kwanyama. By then, four congregations existed with a confessing membership of 800.
- 1916 – And did those feet in ancient time
- 1916 – Father Divine founded International Peace Mission movement
- 1917 – Interdenominational Foreign Mission Association (IFMA) founded[136]
- 1917 – Evangelical Catholic theses Stimuli et Clavi
- 1917 – Miracle of the Sun an event that was witnessed by as many as 100,000 people on 13 October 1917 in the Cova da Iria fields near Fátima, Portugal. How the Sun Danced at Midday at Fátima[137] [4]
- 1917 – appears to 3 young people, in Fatima, Portugal. They were Jacinta Marto, Tiago Veloso and Lúcia (Sister Lucia)
- 1917 – True Jesus Church founded in Beijing
- 1917 – Restitution of the Tikhonas patriarch
- 1918 – James L. Barton, head of the American Board of Commissioners for Foreign Missions, asked missionaries who had served in the Ottoman Empire for detailed reports of the horrors they had witnessed of the Armenian genocide
- 1918 – Execution of Holy Martyrs of Russia, including the last tsar, Alexandra Feodorovna
- 1919 – The Union Version of Bible in Chinese is published;[138] Gospel Missionary Union enters Sudan[139]
- 1919 – Karl Barth's Commentary on Romans is published, critiquing Liberal Christianity and beginning the neo-orthodox movement
- 1920 – Baptist Mid-Missions formed by William Haas;
- 1920 – The Ecclesia, an Esoteric Christian Temple, was erected and dedicated on Christmas day (25 December)
- 1921 – Founding of International Missionary Council (IMC); Norwegian Mission Council formed; Columbansenter China
- 1921 – Oxford Group founded at Oxford
- 1922 – Nazarenes enter Mozambique
- 1923 – Scottish missionaries begin work in British Togoland
- 1923 – Aimee Semple McPherson built Angelus Temple
- 1924 – Bible Churchman's Missionary Society opens work in Upper
- 1925 – E. Stanley Jones, Methodist missionary to India, writes The Christ of the Indian Road[143]
- 1925 – Scopes Trial, caused division among Fundamentalists
- 1925 – United Church of Canada formed
- 1926 – Dawson Trotman, founder of the Navigators, is converted through Bible verses he had memorized
- 1926 – Father Charles Coughlin's first radio broadcast
- 1926–1929 – Cristero War in Mexico, the Constitution of 1917 brought persecution of Christian practices and anti-clerical laws – approximately 4,000 Catholic Priests were expelled, assassinated or executed
- 1927 – East African revival movement (Balokole) emerges in Rwanda and moves across several other countries[122]
- 1927 – Comma Johanneumopen to dispute
- 1928 – Cuba Bible Institute (West Indies Mission) opens; Jerusalem Conference of International Missionary Council;[122] foundation of Borneo Evangelical Mission by Hudson Southwell, Frank Davidson and Carey Tolley.
- 1929 –
- 1929 – Lateran Treaty signed containing three agreements between kingdom of Italy and the papacy.
- 1930 – Côte d'Ivoire
- 1930 – Rastafari movementfounded
- 1931 – HCJB radio station started in Quito, Ecuador by Clarence Jones;[145] Baptist Mid-Missions enters Liberia[146]
- 1931 – Franciscan missionary the Venerable Gabriele Allegra arrives in Hunan China from Italy to start translating the Bible [5]
- 1931 – Christ the Redeemer (statue) in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
- 1931 – Jehovah's Witnesses founded see 1884 for more information.
- 1932 – Assemblies of God open mission work in Colombia; Laymen's Missionary Inquiry report published
- 1932 –
- 1933 –
- 1933 – Catholic Worker Movement founded
- 1934 – Columbans enter Japan[149]
- 1934 – Radio Church of God
- 1935 – Frank C. Laubach, American missionary to the Philippines, perfects the "Each one teach one" literacy program, which has been used worldwide to teach 60 million people to read[150]
- 1935 – Billy Sunday, early U.S. radio evangelist
- 1935 – Lutheran High Church manifesto Kyrklig förnyelse
- 1935 – Dr. Frank C. Laubach, known as "The Apostle to the Illiterates", working in the Philippines, developed a literacy program that continues to teach millions of people to read.
- 1935 – Rahlf's critical edition of the Koine Greek Septuagint
- 1936 – With the outbreak of civil war in Spain, missionaries are forced to leave that country.
- 1937 – After expulsion of missionaries from Ethiopia by Italian invaders, widespread revival erupts among Protestant (SIM) churches in south;[151] Child Evangelism Fellowship (CEF [7]) founded by Jesse Irvin Overholzer
- 1938 – West Indies Mission enters
- 1938 – Tripura Baptist Christian Union was established at Laxmilunga, Tripura.
- 1942 – Wycliffe Bible Translators; New Tribes mission founded with a vision to reach the tribal peoples of Bolivia
- 1942 – National Association of Evangelicals founded\
- 1943 – Five missionaries with Baptistmissionaries beheaded in the Philippines by Japanese soldiers
- 1944 – Missionaries return to Suki, Papua New Guinea after withdrawal of the Japanese military
- 1945 – Mission Aviation Fellowship formed;[155] Far East Broadcasting Company (FEBC) founded;[156] Evangelical Foreign Missions Association formed by denominational mission boards[157]
- 1945 – The Venerable Gabriele Allegra establishes the Studium Biblicum Franciscanum in Beijing [8]
- 1945 – Dietrich Bonhoeffer is executed by the Nazis
- 1945 – Ludwig Müller
- 1945 – On the appears to a simple woman, Ida Peerdeman, in Amsterdam. This was the first of 56 appearances as "Our Lady of All Nations" [9], which took place between 1945 and 1959.
- 1948 – Alfredo del Rosso merges his Italian Holiness Mission with the Church of the Nazarene, thus opening Nazarene work on the European continent; Southern Baptist Convention adopts program calling for the tripling of the number of missionaries.
- 1948 – Israeli Declaration of Independence, see also Christian Zionism
- 1948 – World Council of Churches is founded
- 1949 – Southern Baptist Mission board opens work in Venezuela, Mary Tripp sent out by CEF Child Evangelism Fellowship to the Netherlands.
- 1949 – evangelist Billy Graham preaches his first Los Angeles crusade
- 1950 – Cap Haitien, Haiti[158]
- 1950 – Assumption of Mary decreed by Pope Pius XII
- 1950 – Missionaries of Charity founded by Mother Teresa
- 1951 – UCLA;[159] Alaska Missionsis founded (later to be renamed InterAct Ministries).
- 1951 – UCLA
- 1951 – Bishop Emmysuntil Sheen ended the program in 1957.
- 1951 – The Last Temptation a fictional account of the life of Jesus written by Nikos Kazantzakis, wherein Christ's divinity is juxtaposed with his humanity, is published, and promptly banned in many countries.
- 1952 – Trans World Radio founded[160]
- 1952 – C. S. Lewis' Mere Christianity
- 1952 – Novum Testamentum Graece, critical edition of Greek NT, basis of modern translations
- 1953 – Walter Trobisch, who would publish I Loved a Girl in 1962, begins pioneer missionary work in northern Cameroon.[161]
- 1954 –
- 1954 – Unification Church founded under the name Holy Spirit Association for the Unification of World Christianity, acronymed HSA-UWC.
- 1954 – U.S. Pledge of Allegiancemodified by act of Congress from "one nation, indivisible" to "one nation under God, indivisible"
- 1955 – Brother Andrew" makes first of many Bible smuggling trips into Communist Eastern Europe;
- 1956 – U.S. missionaries
- 1956 – Anchor Bible Series
- 1956 – In God We Trust designated U.S. national motto
- 1956 – The Ten Commandments
- 1957 – East Asia Christian Conference (EACC) founded at Prapat, Sumatra, Indonesia[164]
- 1957 – United Church of Christ founded by ecumenical union of Congregationalists and Evangelical & Reformed, representing Calvinists and Lutherans
- 1957 – English translation of Walter Bauer's Wörterbuch zu den Schriften des Neuen Testaments: A Greek-English Lexicon of the New Testament and Other Early Christian Literature, University of Chicago Press
- 1958 – Huaorani tribe in Ecuador.
- 1958 – Sedevacantism
- 1959 – Wycliffe Bible Translators; Feba Radiofounded in UK.
- 1959 – Family Radio founded
- 1960 – Kenneth Strachan starts Evangelism-in-Depth in
- 1961 – International Christian radio stations now number 30[164]
- 1961 – Christian Broadcasting Network founded
- 1962 – Don Richardson goes to Sawi tribe in Papua New Guinea;[169] Operation Mobilisation founded in Mexico by George Verwer
- 1962 – Engel v. Vitale, first U.S. Supreme Court decision against school prayer
- 1962–1965 – Catholic Second Vatican Council, announced by Pope John XXIII in 1959, produced 16 documents which became official Roman Catholic teaching after approval by the Pope, purpose to renew "ourselves and the flocks committed to us"
- 1963 – Theological Education by Extension movement launched in Guatemala by Ralph Winter and James Emery[170]
- 1963 – Martin Luther King Jr. leads a civil rights march in Washington, D.C.
- 1963 – Oral Roberts University founded
- 1963 – campaign by Madalyn Murray O'Hair results in U.S. Supreme Court ruling prohibiting reading of Bible in public schools
- 1964 – In separate incidents, rebels in the Congo kill missionaries Paul Carlson and Irene Ferrel as well as brutalizing missionary doctor Helen Roseveare;[171] Carlson is featured on 4 December Time magazine cover;[172] Hans von Staden of the Dorothea Mission proposes to Patrick Johnstone that he write the book now titled Operation World[173]
- 1965 – Rousas John Rushdoony founds Chalcedon Foundation
- 1965 – Reginald H. Fuller's The Foundations of New Testament Christology
- 1966 – God's Smugglerpublished
- 1966 – Raymond E. Brown's Commentary on the Gospel of John
- 1967 – All foreign missionaries expelled from Guinea[175]
- 1968 – The Studium Biblicum Translation of the Bible is published in Chinese [11] by the Venerable Gabriele Allegra
- 1968 – Wu Yung and others form the Chinese Missions Overseas in order to send out missionaries from Taiwan to do cross-cultural ministry; Augustinian order re-established in India
- 1968 – United Methodist Church formed with union of Methodist Church & Evangelical United Brethren Church, becoming the largest Methodist/Wesleyan church in the world
- 1968 – Zeitoun, Egypt, a bright image of the Virgin Mary as Our Lady of Zeitoun was seen over the Coptic Orthodox Church of Saint Demiana for over a 3-year period. Over six million Egyptians and foreigners saw the image, including Copts, Eastern Orthodox, Roman Catholic, Protestants, Muslims, Jews and people of no particular faith.
- 1969 – OMF International begins "industrial evangelism" to Taiwan's factory workers[176]
- 1970 – Frankfurt Declaration on Mission;[177] Operation Mobilisation launches MV Logos ship;[178] Abp. Makarios III (Mouskos) of Cyprus baptizes 10,000 into the Orthodox Church in Kenya.
- 1970 – Mass of Paul VI replaces Tridentine Mass
- 1970 – The Late, Great Planet Earthfuturist book by Hal Lindsey
- 1970s The Jesus movement takes hold in the U.S. One-way.org
- 1971 – Gustavo Gutierrez publishes A Theology of Liberation[179]
- 1971 – Liberty University founded by Jerry Falwell
- 1971 – New American Standard Bible
- 1971 – Catholicfaith, is published.
- 1972 – American Society of Missiology founded with journal Missiology[180]
- 1973 – Services by Billy Graham attract four and a half million people in six cities of Korea;[181] first All-Asa Mission Consultation convenes in Seoul, Korea with 25 delegates from 14 countries[182]
- 1973 – New International Version of the Bible is first published (revised in 1978,1984), using a variety of Greek texts, Masoretic Hebrew texts, and current English style
- 1973 – Trinity Broadcasting Network founded
- 1973, 12 June – Near the city of Marian apparitions.[183]
- 1974 – Missiologist Ralph Winter talks about "hidden" or unreached peoples at Lausanne Congress of World Evangelism.[184] Lausanne Covenant is written and ratified
- 1974 – Jim Bakker founds PTL television ministry
- 1975 – Missionaries Armand Doll and Hugh Friberg imprisoned in Mozambique after communist takeover of government[185]
- 1975 – Bruce Metzger's Textual Commentary on the Greek New Testament
- 1976 – U.S. Center for World Mission founded in Pasadena, California; 1600 Chinese assemble in Hong Kong for the Chinese Congress on World Evangelization; Islamic World Congress calls for withdrawal of Christian missionaries; Peace Child by Don Richardson appears in Reader's Digest.
- 1976 – Anneliese Michel, Bavarian woman, underwent exorcism against demon possession
- 1977 – Evangelical Fellowship of India sponsors the All-India Congress on Mission and Evangelization[182]
- 1977 – Focus on the Family founded by James Dobson
- 1977 – New Perspective on Paul
- 1978 – LCWE Consultation on Gospel and Culture in Willowbank, Bermuda;
- 1978 – Chicago Statement on Biblical Inerrancy
- 1978–2005 – Pope John Paul II, reaffirmed moral traditions (The Splendor of Truth)
- 1979 – Production of
- 1979 – Jesus, most watched movie of all time according to The New York Times
- 1979 – Moral Majority founded by Jerry Falwell
- 1979–1982 – New King James Version, complete revision of 1611 AV, updates archaisms while retaining style
- 1980 – Philippine Congress on Discipling a Whole Nation;[191] Lausanne Congress on World Evangelism Conference in Pattaya[192]
- 1981 – Colombian terrorists kidnap and kill Wycliffe Bible Translator Chet Bitterman;[193] Project Pearl: one million Bibles are delivered in a single night to thousands of waiting believers in China[194]
- 1981 –
- 1981 – Mother Angelica launches EWTN. It grows to become one of the largest television networks in the world. The operation expands to radio in 1992.
- 1982 – Story on "The New Missionary" makes 27 December cover of Time magazine;SIM (formerly Sudan Interior Mission[199]
- 1982 – Chicago Statement on Biblical Hermeneutics
- 1983 – Missionary Athletes International, a global soccer ministry, founded by Tim Conrad[200]
- 1984 – Founding of The Mission Society for United Methodists, a voluntary missionary sending agency within the United Methodist Church; rebranded in 2006 to The Mission Society; Founding of STEM (Short Term Evangelical Mission teams) ministry by Roger Petersen signals the rising importance of Short-term missionsgroups
- 1985 – Howard Foltz founds Accelerating International Mission Strategies (AIMS)
- 1985 – E. P. Sanders' Jesus and Judaism
- 1985 – Jesus Seminar founded
- 1986 – Chicago Statement on Biblical Application
- 1987 – Second International Conference on
- 1987 – Danvers Statement – Council on Biblical Manhood and Womanhood
- 1988 – Christian Coalition
- 1988 – The Last Temptation of Christ, directed by Martin Scorsese, is released by Universal Pictures, and promptly attacked as heretical by organized Christian and Catholic groups.
- 1988 – The celebration of 1000 years since the baptism of Kievan Rusthroughout the R.O.C.
- 1989 – 10/40 Window emerges;[201]"Ee-Taow" video released by New Tribes Mission
- 1989 – New Revised Standard Version
- 1990 – American Center for Law and Justicefounded
- 1991 – The Marxist government of Ethiopia is overthrown and missionaries are able to return to that country
- 1991 – John P. Meier's series A Marginal Jew: Rethinking the Historical Jesus, v. 1
- 1992 – World Gospel Mission (National Holiness Missionary Society) starts work in Uganda[202]
- 1992 – Catechism of the Catholic Church
- 1993 – Trans World Radio starts broadcasting from a 250,000-watt shortwave transmitter in Russia[203]
- 1994 – Liibaan Ibraahim Hassan, a convert to Christianity in Somalia, is martyred by Islamic militants in the capital city of Mogadishu;
- 1994 – "Evangelicals & Catholics Together"[204]
- 1994 – Answers In Genesisfounded by Ken Ham
- 1994 – Porvoo Communion
- 1994, 3 July – Glorification of St. John of Shanghai and San Francisco
- 1995 – Missionary Don Cox abducted in Quito, Ecuador[205]
- 1996 – Nazarenes enter Hungary, Kazakhstan, Pakistan
- 1996 – Cambridge Declaration – Alliance of Confessing Evangelicals [12]
- 1997 – Foreign Mission Board and Home Mission Board of Southern Baptist Convention become the International Mission Board and North American Mission Board with ten thousand missionaries
- 1997, 5–10 March – World Council of Churches: Towards a Common Date for Easter, see also Reform of the date of Easter
- 1998, 6 April – PBS Frontline: From Jesus to Christ
- 1999 – Hinduextremists as they are sleeping in a car in eastern India.
- 1999 – International House of Prayer in Kansas City begins non-stop 24/7 continual prayer
- 1999 – Gospel of Jesus Christ – An Evangelical Celebration; a consensus Gospel endorsed by various evangelical leaders including J.I. Packer, John Ankerberg, Jerry Falwell, Thomas C. Oden, R.C. Sproul, Wayne Grudem, Charles Swindoll, et al.
- 1999, 31 October – signing of the Joint Declaration on the Doctrine of Justification between the Lutheran World Federation and the Catholic Church
- 2000 – Asia College of Ministry (ACOM), a ministry of Asia Evangelistic Fellowship (AEF), was launched by Jonathan James, to train national missionaries in Asia.
- 2000 – Assiut, Upper Egypt;[206] phenomena associated to Our Lady reported again, in 2006, in a Church at the same location during the Mass.[207] Local Coptic priests and then the Coptic Orthodox Churchof Assiut issue statements in 2000 and 2006, respectively
See also
- Christianity in the 20th century
- History of the Roman Catholic Church#World War II
- History of Christian theology#Modern Christian theology
- Role of the Roman Catholic Church in civilization
- Timeline of Christianity#19th century
- Timeline of Christian missions#1900 to 1949
- Timeline of the Roman Catholic Church#20th century
- Chronological list of saints and blesseds in the 20th century
References
- ^ Duffy, Saints and Sinners (1997), p. 240
- ^ Rerum novarum, § 45
- ^ a b The Busy Christian's Guide to Social Teaching.
- ^ Catholic Encyclopedia (1911): Rerum Novarum.
- ^ Duffy 260
- ^ Quadragesimo anno § 88.
- ^ Franzen, 368
- ^ Felictity O'Brien, Pope Pius XII: Architect for Peace, London: 2000, p.13
- ^ Stacy, p. 139.
- ^ Fontenelle, 164
- ^ Riasanovsky 617
- ^ Franzen 397
- JSTOR 261121
- ^ Franzen 365
- ^ a b c Chadwick, Owen, pp. 264–265.
- ^ Scheina, p. 33.
- ^ Van Hove, Brian (1994). "Blood Drenched Altars". EWTN Global Catholic Network. Retrieved 9 March 2008.
- ^ "International Religious Freedom Report 2001" (PDF). US Department of State. 2001. Retrieved 13 March 2008.
- ^ Chadwick, Owen p. 240.
- ^ Norman, pp. 167–172.
- ^ (Hansjakob Stehle, Die Ostpolitik des Vatikans, Piper, München, 1975, pp. 139–141
- ^ a b Riasanovsky 634
- ^ Smith, Craig (10 January 2007). "In Poland, New Wave of Charges Against Clerics". The New York Times. Retrieved 23 May 2008.
- ^ White, Ed (3 April 2005). "NEWS ANALYSIS: Pope Stared Down Communism in Homeland _ and Won". Religion News Service. Retrieved 28 November 2022.
- ^ a b Bokenkotter, pp. 356–358.
- ^ a b Chadwick, Owen pp. 259–260.
- ^ "China installs Pope-backed bishop", BBC News 21 September 2007. Retrieved 8 September 2009
- ^ a b c Norman, The Roman Catholic Church an Illustrated History (2007), pp. 167–8
- ^ a b c Chadwick, A History of Christianity (1995), p. 266
- ^ Pham, Heirs of the Fisherman: Behind the Scenes of Papal Death and Succession (2005), p. 45, quote: "When Pius XI was complimented on the publication, in 1937, of his encyclical denouncing Nazism, Mit Brennender Sorge, his response was to point to his Secretary of State and say bluntly, 'The credit is his.' "
- ^ a b c Vidmar, The Catholic Church Through the Ages (2005), pp. 327–333, quote: "Mark well that in the Catholic Mass, Abraham is our Patriarch and forefather. Anti-Semitism is incompatible with the lofty thought which that fact expresses. It is a movement with which we Christians can have nothing to do. No, no, I say to you it is impossible for a Christian to take part in anti-Semitism. It is inadmissible. Through Christ and in Christ we are the spiritual progeny of Abraham. Spiritually, we are all Semites."
- ^ a b c d e f g Bokenkotter, A Concise History of the Catholic Church (2004), p. 389–92
- ^ a b c d Chadwick, Owen pp. 254–255.
- ^ a b Coppa, p. 132-7
- ^ Rhodes, pp. 182–183 quote "His contention seemed confirmed in a speech by Staatsminister Wagner in Munich on the 31st March 1934, only nine months after the signature of the Concordat. Wagner said if the Church had not signed a concordat with Germany, the National Socialist government would have abolished the Catholic Youth organisations altogether, and placed them in the same 'anti-state' category as the Marxist groups. ... If the maintenance of Catholic education and of the Catholic Youth associations was, as we have seen often enough before, the principal aim of Papal diplomacy, then his phrase, 'the Concordat prevented greater evils' seems justified. ... "The German episcopate considered that neither the Concordats up to then negotiated with individual German States (Lander), nor the Weimar Constitution gave adequate guarantees or assurance to the faithful of respect for their convictions, rights or liberty of action. In such conditions the guarantees could not be secured except through a settlement having the solemn form of a concordat with the central government of the Reich, I would add that since it was the German government which made the proposal, the responsibility for all the regrettable consequences would have fallen on the Holy See if it had refused the proposed Concordat. Although the Church had few illusions about National Socialism, it must be recognized that the Concordat in the years that followed brought some advantages, or at least prevented worse evils. In fact, in spite of all the violations to which it was subjected, it gave German Catholics a juridical basis for their defence, a stronghold behind which to shield themselves in their oppositions to the ever-growing campaign of religious persecution."
- ^ Rhodes, p. 197 quote "Violence had been used against a Catholic leader as early as June 1934, in the 'Night of the Long Knives' ... by the end of 1936 physical violence was being used openly and blatantly against the Catholic Church. The real issue was not, as the Nazis contended, a struggle with 'political Catholicism', but that the regime would tolerate the Church only if it adapted its religious and moral teaching to the materialist dogma of blood and race – that is, if it ceased to be Christian."
- ^ Shirer, p. 235 quote "On July 25, five days after the ratification of the concordat, the German government promulgated a sterilization law, which particularly offended the Catholic Church. Five days later the first steps were taken to dissolve the Catholic Youth League. During the next years, thousands of Catholic priests, nuns and lay leaders were arrested, many of them on trumped-up charges of 'immorality' or 'smuggling foreign currency'. Erich Klausener, leader of Catholic Action, was, as we have seen, murdered in the June 30, 1934, purge. Scores of Catholic publications were suppressed, and even the sanctity of the confessional was violated by Gestapo agents. By the spring of 1937, the Catholic hierarchy, in Germany, which, like most of the Protestant clergy, had tried to co-operate with the new regime, was thoroughly disillusioned.
- ^ a b c d McGonigle, p. 172 quote "Hitler, of course flagrantly violated the rights of Catholics and others whenever it pleased him. Catholic Action groups were attacked by Hitler's police and Catholic schools were closed. Priests were persecuted and sent to concentration camps. ... On Palm Sunday, 21 March 1937, the encyclical Mit Brennender Sorge was read in Catholic Churches in Germany. In effect it taught that the racial ideas of the leader (fuhrer) and totalitarianism stood in opposition to the Catholic faith. The letter let the world, and especially German Catholics, know clearly that the Church was harassed and persecuted, and that it clearly opposed the doctrines of Nazism."
- ^ Pham, p. 45, quote: "When Pius XI was complimented on the publication, in 1937, of his encyclical denouncing Nazism, Mit Brennender Sorge, his response was to point to his Secretary of State and say bluntly, 'The credit is his.'"
- ^ Vidmar, p. 327 quote "Pius XI's greatest coup was in writing the encyclical Mit Brennender Sorge ("With Burning Desire") in 1936, and having it distributed secretly and ingeniously by an army of motorcyclists, and read from the pulpit on Palm Sunday before the Nazis obtained a single copy. It stated (in German and not in the traditional Latin) that the Concordat with the Nazis was agreed to despite serious misgivings about Nazi integrity. It then went on to condemn the persecution of the church, the neopaganism of the Nazi ideology-especially its theory of racial superiority-and Hitler himself, calling him 'a mad prophet possessed of repulsive arrogance.'"
- ^ a b c d Rhodes, p. 204-205 quote "Mit brennender Sorge did not prevaricate. Although it began mildly enough with an account of the broad aims of the Church, it went on to become one of the greatest condemnations of a national regime ever pronounced by the Vatican. Its vigorous language is in sharp contrast to the involved style in which encyclicals were normally written. The education question was fully and critically examined, and a long section devoted to disproving the Nazi theory of Blood and Soil (Blut und Boden) and the Nazi claim that faith in Germany was equivalent to faith in God. There were scathing references to Rosenberg's Myth of the Twentieth Century and its neo-paganism. The pressure exercised by the Nazi party on Catholic officials to betray their faith was lambasted as 'base, illegal and inhuman'. The document spoke of "a condition of spiritual oppression in Germany such as has never been seen before", of 'the open fight against the Confessional schools and the suppression of liberty of choice for those who desire a Catholic education'. 'With pressure veiled and open,' it went on, 'with intimidation, with promises of economic, professional, civil, and other advantages, the attachment of Catholics to the Faith, particularly those in government employment, is exposed to a violence as illegal as it is inhuman.' 'The calvary of the Church': 'The war of annihilation against the Catholic Faith'; 'The cult of idols'. The fulminations thundered down from the pulpits to the delighted congregations. Nor was the Fuhrer himself spared, for his 'aspirations to divinity', 'placing himself on the same level as Christ': 'a mad prophet possessed of repulsive arrogance' (widerliche Hochmut)."
- ^ a b Courtois, p. 29 quote "Pope Pius XI condemned Nazism and Communism respectively in the encyclicals Mit Brennender Sorge ... and Divini redemptoris ... ."
- ^ Norman, p. 167 quote "But violations began almost at once by Nazi Party officials, and in 1937 the papacy issued a Letter to the German bishops to be read in the churches. Mit Brennender Sorge ... denounced the violations as contrary to Natural Law and to the term of the Concordat. The Letter, in fact, amounted to a condemnation of Nazi ideology: 'In political life within the state, since it confuses considerations of utility with those of right, it mistakes the basic fact that man as a person possesses God-given rights which must be preserved from all attacks aimed at denying, suppressing, or disregarding them.' The Letter also rejected absolutely the concept of a German National Church."
- ^ Bokenkotter, pp. 389–392, quote "And when Hitler showed increasing belligerence toward the Church, Pius met the challenge with a decisiveness that astonished the world. His encyclical Mit Brennender Sorge was the 'first great official public document to dare to confront and criticize Nazism' and 'one of the greatest such condemnations ever issued by the Vatican.' Smuggled into Germany, it was read from all the Catholic pulpits on Palm Sunday in March 1937. It denounced the Nazi "myth of blood and soil" and decried its neopaganism, its war of annihilation against the Church, and even described the Fuhrer himself as a 'mad prophet possessed of repulsive arrogance'. The Nazis were infuriated, and in retaliation closed and sealed all the presses that had printed it and took numerous vindictive measures against the Church, including staging a long series of immorality trials of Catholic clergy."
- ^ a b c Duffy, (paperback edition) p. 343 quote "In a triumphant security operation, the encyclical was smuggled into Germany, locally printed, and read from Catholic pulpits on Palm Sunday 1937. Mit Brennender Sorge ('With Burning Anxiety') denounced both specific government actions against the Church in breach of the concordat and Nazi racial theory more generally. There was a striking and deliberate emphasis on the permanent validity of the Jewish scriptures, and the Pope denounced the 'idolatrous cult' which replaced belief in the true God with a 'national religion' and the 'myth of race and blood'. He contrasted this perverted ideology with the teaching of the Church in which there was a home 'for all peoples and all nations'. The impact of the encyclical was immense, and it dispelled at once all suspicion of a Fascist Pope. While the world was still reacting, however, Pius issued five days later another encyclical, Divini Redemptoris denouncing Communism, declaring its principles 'intrinsically hostile to religion in any form whatever', detailing the attacks on the Church which had followed the establishment of Communist regimes in Russia, Mexico and Spain, and calling for the implementation of Catholic social teaching to offset both Communism and 'amoral liberalism'. The language of Divini Redemptoris was stronger than that of Mit Brennender Sorge, its condemnation of Communism even more absolute than the attack on Nazism. The difference in tone undoubtedly reflected the Pope's own loathing of Communism as the ultimate enemy. The last year of his life, however, left no one any doubt of his total repudiation of the right-wing tyrannies in Germany and, despite his instinctive sympathy with some aspects of Fascism, increasingly in Italy also. His speeches and conversations were blunt, filled with phrases like 'stupid racialism', 'barbaric Hitlerism'."
- ^ Chadwick, Owen p. 254 quote "The encyclical was smuggled into Germany and read from the pulpits on Palm Sunday. It made the repression far worse; but it too was necessary to Christian honour."
- ^ Vidmar, pp. 327–333, quote: "Mark well that in the Catholic Mass, Abraham is our Patriarch and forefather. Anti-Semitism is incompatible with the lofty thought which that fact expresses. It is a movement with which we Christians can have nothing to do. No, no, I say to you it is impossible for a Christian to take part in anti-Semitism. It is inadmissible. Through Christ and in Christ we are the spiritual progeny of Abraham. Spiritually, we are all Semites."
- ^ a b Vidmar, p. 331.
- ^ Duffy, (paperback edition) p. 348 quote "It is clear from Maglione's intervention that Papa Pacelli cared about and sought to avert the deportation of the Roman Jews. but he did not denounce: a denunciation, the Pope believed, would do nothing to help the Jews, and would only extend Nazi persecution to yet more Catholics. It was the Church as well as the Jews in Germany, Poland and the rest of occupied Europe who would pay the price for any papal gesture. There was some weight in this argument: when the Dutch Catholic hierarchy denounced measures against Jews there, the German authorities retaliated by extending the persecution to baptized Jews who had formerly been protected by their Catholicism."
- ^ Bokenkotter p. 192 quote "The end of the war saw the prestige of the papacy at an all-time high. Many nations had ambassadors accredited with the Vatican. The President of the United States sent his personal representative, while a constant stream of the world's celebrities moved through its portals. The Holy Year of 1950 brought millions of more humble pilgrims to the tomb of Peter. The pope gave daily addresses on every conceivable subject and was widely quoted around the world. The number of Catholic dioceses increased during his reign from 1,696 to 2,048. ... Einstein, for instance, in an article in Time, paid tribute to Pius and noted that the Church alone 'stood squarely across the path of Hitler's campaign.' ... 'Rabbi Herzog, the chief rabbi of Israel, sent a message in February 1944 declaring "the people of Israel will never forget what His Holiness ... (is) doing for our unfortunate brothers and sisters in the most tragic hour of our history."' David Dalin cites these tributes as recognition of the work of the Holy See in saving hundreds of thousands of Jews."
- ^ Eakin, Emily (1 September 2001). "New Accusations of a Vatican Role in Anti-Semitism; Battle Lines Were Drawn After Beatification of Pope Pius IX". The New York Times. Retrieved 9 March 2008.
- ^ Phayer, pp. 50–57
- ^ Bokenkotter, pp. 480–481, quote:"A recent article by American rabbi, David G. Dalin, challenges this judgement. He calls making Pius XII a target of moral outrage a failure of historical understanding, and he thinks Jews should reject any 'attempt to usurp the Holocaust' for the partisan purposes at work in this debate. Dalin surmises that well-known Jews such as Albert Einstein, Golda Meir, Moshe Sharett, and Rabbi Isaac Herzog would likely have been shocked at these attacks on Pope Pius. ... Dalin points out that Rabbi Herzog, the chief rabbi of Israel, sent a message in February 1944 declaring 'the people of Israel will never forget what His Holiness ... (is) doing for our unfortunate brothers and sisters in the most tragic hour of our history.'" Dalin cites these tributes as recognition of the work of the Holy See in saving hundreds of thousands of Jews."
- ^ Deák, p. 182.
- ^ Dalin, p. 10
- ^ Randall, Gene (26 March 2000). "Pope Ends Pilgrimage to the Holy Land". CNN. Archived from the original on 17 March 2006. Retrieved 9 June 2008.
- ^ a b Bokenkotter, p. 484
- ^ Vatican (12 March 1998). "We Remember: A Reflection on the Shoah". Jewish Virtual Library. Retrieved 7 November 2008.
- ISBN 978-3902494832, pp. 299–305.
- ISBN 978-3707606225, pp. 161–248.
- ^ Peter Broucek "Die österreichische Identität im Widerstand 1938–1945" (2008), p. 163.
- ^ Hansjakob Stehle "Die Spione aus dem Pfarrhaus (German: The spy from the rectory)" In: Die Zeit, 5 January 1996.
- ^ "Wolfgang Neugebauer: Der österreichische Widerstand 1938–1945" (PDF).
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- ^ Christoph Thurner "The CASSIA Spy Ring in World War II Austria: A History of the OSS's Maier-Messner Group" (2017), pp 187.
- ^ Chadwick, A History of Christianity (1995), pp. 254–5
- ^ Vidmar, The Catholic Church Through the Ages (2005), p. 329
- ^ Eakin, Emily (1 September 2001). "New Accusations of a Vatican Role in Anti-Semitism; Battle Lines Were Drawn After Beatification of Pope Pius IX". The New York Times. Retrieved 9 March 2008.
- ^ Bokenkotter, A Concise History of the Catholic Church (2004), pp. 480–1, quote: "A recent article by American rabbi, David G. Dalin, challenges this judgement. He calls making Pius XII a target of moral outrage a failure of historical understanding, and he thinks Jews should reject any 'attempt to usurp the Holocaust' for the partisan purposes at work in this debate. Dalin surmises that well–known Jews such as Albert Einstein, Golda Meir, Moshe Sharett, and Rabbi Isaac Herzog would likely have been shocked at these attacks on Pope Pius. Einstein, for instance, in an article in Time, paid tribute to Pius and noted that the Church alone 'stood squarely across the path of Hitler's campaign.' Dalin points out that 'Rabbi Herzog, the chief rabbi of Israel, sent a message in February 1944 declaring "the people of Israel will never forget what His Holiness ... (is) doing for our unfortunate brothers and sisters in the most tragic hour of our history." ' Dalin cites these tributes as recognition of the work of the Holy See in saving hundreds of thousands of Jews."
- ^ Derek Holmes, History of the Papacy, p. 102.
- ^ Derek Holmes, History of the Papacy, p. 116.
- ^ John Vidmar, The Catholic Church Through the Ages: A History (New York: Paulist Press, 2005), p. 332 & n. 37.
- ^ John Vidmar, The Catholic Church Through the Ages: A History (New York: Paulist Press, 2005), p. 332.
- ^ Derek Holmes, History of the Papacy, p. 158.
- ^ a b Phayer 2000, p. 32
- ^ Cornwell 1999, p. 50
- ^ Phayer 2000, p. 39
- ISBN 978-0-80477-924-1.
- ^ Phayer 2008 p. 220
- ^ Franzen 324
- ^ Franzen 325
- ^ "Joint Catholic-Orthodox Declaration of His Holiness Pope Paul VI and the Ecumenical Patriarch Athenagoras I". Archived from the original on 8 February 2014.
- ^ a b c d Duffy, Saints and Sinners (1997), p. 270–6
- ^ a b Paul VI, Pope (4 December 1963). "Sacrosanctum Concilium". Vatican. Archived from the original on 21 February 2008. Retrieved 9 February 2008.
- ^ Duffy, Saints and Sinners (1997), p. 274
- ^ "Roman Catholic-Eastern Orthodox Dialogue". Public Broadcasting Service. 14 July 2000. Archived from the original on 10 March 2013. Retrieved 16 February 2008.
- ^ cf. Catechism, nos. 894–95
- ^ Lumen gentium, 22
- ^ a b Bokenkotter, A Concise History of the Catholic Church (2004), p. 410
- ^ Bauckham, Richard, in New Dictionary of Theology, Ed. Ferguson, (1988), p. 373
- ^ Apostolic Letter "Motu Proprio data" Summorum Pontificum on the use of the Roman Liturgy prior to the reform of 1970 (7 July 2007)
- ^ Duffy, pp. 270–276.
- ^ Duffy, Saints and Sinners (1997), p. 274.
- ^ "Roman Catholic–Eastern Orthodox Dialogue". Public Broadcasting Service. 14 July 2000. Archived from the original on 10 March 2013. Retrieved 16 February 2008.
- ^ a b Bokenkotter, pp. 454–457.
- ^ Bokenkotter, p. 463.
- ^ a b Rohter, Larry (7 May 2007). "As Pope Heads to Brazil, a Rival Theology Persists". The New York Times. Retrieved 21 February 2008.
- ^ "Liberation Theology". BBC. Retrieved 12 September 2008.
- ^ Paul VI, Pope (1968). "Humanae vitae". Vatican. Archived from the original on 3 March 2011. Retrieved 2 February 2008.
- ^ Norman, The Roman Catholic Church an Illustrated History (2007), p. 184
- ^ John Paul II, Pope (1988). "Mulieris dignitatem". Vatican. Retrieved 21 February 2008.
- ^ Bokenkotter, A Concise History of the Catholic Church (2004), p. 467
- ^ a b Pope Benedict XVI, Jesus of Nazareth (2008), pp. 180–1, quote: "The difference between the discipleship of the Twelve and the discipleship of the women is obvious; the tasks assigned to each group are quite different. Yet Luke makes clear—and the other Gospels also show this in all sorts of ways—that 'many' women belonged to the more intimate community of believers and that their faith—filled following of Jesus was an essential element of that community, as would be vividly illustrated at the foot of the Cross and the Resurrection."
- ^ John Paul II, Pope (22 May 1994). "Apostolic Letter to the Bishops of the Catholic Church on Reserving Priestly Ordination to Men Alone". Vatican. Archived from the original on 18 January 2012. Retrieved 2 February 2008.
- ^ Cowell, Alan (31 May 1994). "Pope Rules Out Debate on Making Women Priests". The New York Times. Retrieved 12 February 2008.
- ^ a b Paul VI, Pope (1968). "Humanae vitae". Vatican. Archived from the original on 3 March 2011. Retrieved 2 February 2008.
- ^ a b Bokenkotter, p. 27, p. 154, pp. 493–494.
- ^ "The Death Penalty Pro and Con: The Pope's Statement". PBS. Retrieved 12 June 2008.
- ^ Dugger, Carol (18 May 2006). "Why is Kenya's AIDS rate plummeting?". International Herald Tribune. Retrieved 21 February 2008.
- ^ Wilson, Brenda (4 May 2004). "Study: Verbal Warnings Helped Curb AIDS in Uganda". National Public Radio. Retrieved 15 August 2008.
- ^ a b Bokenkotter, pp. 465–466.
- ^ Bokenkotter, p. 467.
- ^ John Paul II, Pope (1988). "Mulieris dignitatem". Vatican. Retrieved 21 February 2008.
- ^ John Paul II, Pope (22 May 1994). "Ordinatio Sacerdotalis". Vatican. Archived from the original on 18 January 2012. Retrieved 2 February 2008.
- ^ Cowell, Alan (31 May 1994). "Pope Rules Out Debate on Making Women Priests". The New York Times. Retrieved 12 February 2008.
- ^ "Common Declaration". Ewtn.com. 29 June 1995. Retrieved 14 October 2012.
- ^ Parker, p. 25
- ^ Herzog, vol. XI, p. 17
- ^ Olson, p. 158
- ^ Parker, p. 26
- ^ Anderson, p. 674
- ^ a b c d Barrett, p. 30
- ^ Parker, p. 27
- ^ Latourette, 1941, vol. V, p. 104
- ^ Emmanuel Chuntic, 229
- ^ Glover, 229
- ^ "Pentecostalism". Mb-soft.com. Retrieved 14 October 2012.
- ^ Anderson, p. 845
- ^ Neill, pp. 331–334
- ^ Niell, 293
- ^ Latourette, 1941, vol IV, p. 104
- ^ Gailey, p. 83
- ^ Anderson, p. 79
- ^ "Revival Fire – by Geoff Waugh (a brief overview of revival since the 18th century)". Openheaven.com. Archived from the original on 10 February 2012. Retrieved 14 October 2012.
- ^ "Ricci Roundtable on the History of Christianity in China". Ricci.rt.usfca.edu. Retrieved 14 October 2012.
- ^ Olson, p. 317
- ^ "The Visions at Fátima". O Século, 15-10-1917, reproduced in Público May 12, 2000. portcult.com. Archived from the original on 31 March 2007. Retrieved 12 October 2012.
- ^ "Biblica | Chinese Bible Download from Biblica". Ibs.org. Archived from the original on 15 October 2008. Retrieved 14 October 2012.
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Further reading
- Farrell, Joseph P. God, History, & Dialectic: The Theological Foundations of the Two Europes and Their Cultural Consequences. Bound edition 1997. Electronic edition 2008.
- González, Justo L. (1985). The Story of Christianity, Vol. 2: The Reformation to the Present Day. San Francisco: Harper. ISBN 0-06-063316-6.
- Hastings, Adrian (1999). A World History of Christianity. Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing. ISBN 0-8028-4875-3.
- ISBN 0-06-064953-4.
- Nichols, Aidan. Rome and the Eastern Churches: a Study in Schism. 1992
- Shelley, Bruce L. (1996). Church History in Plain Language (2nd ed.). Word Pub. ISBN 0-8499-3861-9.
External links
- History of Christianity Reading Room:[permanent dead link] Extensive online resources for the study of global church history (Tyndale Seminary).
- Dictionary of the History of Ideas: Christianity in History
- Phillips, Walter Alison (1911). Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 6 (11th ed.). pp. 330–345. .
- Historical Christianity, A time line with references to the descendants of the early church.