Caucasus Greeks

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Caucasian Greeks
)
Russian Map of the Caucasus and north-eastern Anatolia, 1903

The Caucasus Greeks (

Kars Oblast' (the so-called Russian Asia Minor), now in north-eastern Turkey and Adjara in Georgia.[1]

Greek people migrated into these areas well before the Christian/Byzantine era. Traders, Christian Orthodox scholars/clerics, refugees, mercenaries, and those who had backed the wrong side in the many civil wars and periods of political in-fighting in the Classical/Hellenistic and Late Roman/Byzantine periods, were especially represented among those who migrated.

Byzantine Greeks shared a common Christian Orthodox faith and heritage with the natives.[3]

Official Russian Empire coat of arms of Kars Oblast (1881-1899).

The vast majority of these Greek communities date from the late Ottoman era, and are usually defined in modern Greek academic circles as 'Eastern Pontic [Greeks]' (modern Greek - ανατολικοί Πόντιοι, modern Turkish 'doğu Pontos Rum'), as well as 'Caucasus Greeks', while outside academic discourse they are sometimes defined somewhat pejoratively and inaccurately as 'Russo-Pontic [Greeks]' (modern Greek - Ρωσο-Πόντιοι).

Eastern Anatolia, or Georgia and the Lesser Caucasus, they preferred and were most used to living in mountainous areas and especially highland plateaux.[5] In broad terms, it can be said that the Caucasus Greeks' link with the South Caucasus is a direct consequence of the highland plateaux of the latter being seen and used by the Pontic Greeks as a natural refuge and rallying point whenever North-eastern Anatolia was overrun by Muslim Turks in the Seljuk and Ottoman periods.[5]

Ancient and medieval history

Kars Oblast

Although large numbers of Greeks live in parts of Ukraine and southern Russia, such as

Kars Oblast', parts of Georgia such as the region around Tsalka, central Abkhazia
and other localities of the Black Sea Russian Riviera.

Following the Ottoman conquest of the

Gurieli dynasty.[6] However, the numbers of these early Pontic Greek refugees to Georgia were in any case probably fairly small, and so although some of the refugees managed to retain their Pontic Greek language and identity, others assimilated through intermarriage into the other Christian communities of the South Caucasus region, particularly their fellow Christian Orthodox Georgians but also those Armenians or Ossetians who were Orthodox.[7]

Early modern period

To complicate matters further, many so-called "Ottoman Turks" who settled in Georgia and the South Caucasus following

Greek Macedonia in the mid-1990s.[10]

It is difficult to verify the numbers of all such waves of Pontic Greeks from the Pontic Alps region to Georgia and the South Caucasus between circa 1520 and 1800, which according to Anthony Bryer is the most obscure period in the history of Pontus and the Pontic Greeks, owing to the scarcity of contemporary Greek and Ottoman Turkish sources on the subject.

Sultan Mehmed IV (1648–87), during which a common pattern was initiated in Ottoman history: the Ottomans and their clients the Crimean Tatars suffered a string of severe defeats at the hands of the expansionist Russian Empire and so followed this up with a wave of repression against the Greeks of both the southern Balkans and the Pontic Alps region, on the pretext that Greek statesmen and traders had colluded with the Tsar. As a result, many Pontic Greeks felt pressured into following their cousins who had left Pontus as refugees in previous generations, and so they too decided to migrate to southern Russia or neighbouring Georgia and the South Caucasus.[13]

However, the largest number of Pontic Greeks from north-eastern Anatolian who settled in Georgia, according to extant historical evidence, were those who fled Ottoman reprisals following the 1768-74 Russo-Turkish war, the

Pontic Alps and north-eastern Anatolia some led local revolts against the Ottomans, while many others actually intermarried into the Ottoman ruling elite, thereby converting to Islam and joining the Turkish millet.[19]

Several Ottoman-era sources tell us, however, that even among

Erzinjan during the Russo-Turkish wars, before following the Russian army back into Georgia and southern Russia.[20] It was some of these Pontic Greek community leaders that claimed noble lineages extending back to the Empire of Trebizond who subsequently became officers in the Russian Imperial army, as many Armenian and Georgian princes such as Ivane Andronikashvili had previously done.[21] These Caucasus Greek officers, whether of noble Byzantine or more humble Pontic Greek origin, played a significant role in the 1877 Russian conquest of Kars and Ardahan, where many of them settled with their families and other displaced Greeks from northeast Anatolia and Georgia (the latter themselves the descendants of pre-1877 Greek refugees and exiles from northeast Anatolia now re-settled in Kars by the Russian Imperial government).[22]

Caucasus Greek cleric and community leaders

Language

A large number of Caucasus Greeks who settled in Georgia became referred to as

Gülbahar Hatun.[25][26]

Nevertheless, most Caucasus Greeks had never had to face this predicament of having to choose between their Christian Orthodox faith and their

Greek Macedonia called Vallahades and the Cretan Muslims, both of whom generally remained ignorant of Turkish, continued to use Greek as their first language, and retained Greek culture and traditions long after converting to Islam in the middle Ottoman period. Of course, while many Pontic Greeks and Caucasus Greeks had also adopted Islam as early as the 1500s or before, these "new Turks" generally either adopted Turkish and then assimilated into the Turkish-speaking Muslim Ottoman population or they remained Crypto-Christian and then openly reverted to their Christian Orthodoxy on the occasion of the 1828 Russian occupation of northeastern Anatolia or after the passing of the Ottoman Reform Edict of 1856.[30]

Russian siege of Kars, 1828

It should be stressed, then, that the vast majority of these eastern Pontic Greeks who had settled in southern Russia, Georgia, and the Trans-Caucasus region but preserved their distinct Greek identity were mainly the descendants of the Greeks who left the Pontic Alps and the northeast Anatolian highland region after the Russo-Turkish wars of 1768-74 and 1828–29.[1] Contrary to certain popular myths, these Pontic Greek settlers therefore had absolutely nothing to do with those Greeks who had settled in the South Caucasus region in the Hellenistic or Classical Greek period, although they generally did merge with those somewhat smaller Pontic Greek communities who had settled in Georgia, Armenia, and the South Caucasus in general in the late Byzantine and early Ottoman period.[31] The main reason Caucasus Greeks preferred to identify themselves exclusively with the later, particularly 19th century waves of Pontic Greek refugees to the South Caucssus rather than also with ancestors who had already settled in the region in the late Byzantine or early Ottoman period is probably because this helped in the presentation of their history as being linked for a longer period to the territories ruled by the Empire of Trebizond, that is Pontus proper, and also helped minimize the historically inconvenient evidence of both substantial non-Greek influences on their culture and extensive intermarriage with the indigenous, non-Hellenic races of the South Caucasus region.[32]

According to conservative estimates these eastern Pontic Greeks who collaborated with and/or followed the Russian army into Georgia and southern Russia following the 1828 Russian occupation of Erzurum and Gümüşhane had made up around 20% of the entire Greek population of the eastern Black Sea coastline and the Pontic Alps that formed its mountain hinterland.[33] They were subsequently resettled by the Russian Imperial government in the Ukraine and other parts of southern Russia, but also especially Georgia and (after 1878) Kars Oblast.[34] Like those Pontic Greeks who fought for Russia in the 1768-74 Russo-Turkish war, most male Greeks who settled in Russian territory following the 1828-29 war continued to serve in the Russian Imperial army, often bearing their own community's hopes to re-capture more Christian Greek territory from the Muslim Turks on the back of the Russian Empire. Like Georgians, Armenians, and other peoples from the South Caucasus, many Caucasus Greek men fought and lost their lives through service in the Russian army not just in wars against the Ottomans, but also in other campaigns, such as the 1817-1864 Caucasian War, in which Russia sought to impose its rule over the Muslim mountain tribes of the north Caucasus.[35]

Role in Russian conquests

The

Sarikamish. As in the 1828-29 war, many Greeks of north-eastern Anatolia and Pontus fought in or collaborated with the Imperial Russian Army in the 1877-78 war against the Ottomans, often serving as soldiers and officers in an army that included large numbers of Georgians, Armenians, Ossetians and Cossack, as well as Russians proper - the Georgians and Armenians in particular being represented among the senior ranks.[7] Although the Ottoman province or 'vilayet' of Kars already had several Greek villages dating back to 1830 or sometimes even earlier, most of these later pro-Russian Greeks of north-eastern Ottoman Anatolia settled in Kars province after it was incorporated into the Russian empire in 1878.[37]

It was precisely because most of the Greek settlers in Kars Oblast had entered the region with the Russians from the direction of Georgia, that contemporaries - and academics later on - came to define them as Caucasus Greeks or Russianized Pontic Greeks, in contrast to those Greek who had never left Ottoman-ruled North-eastern Anatolia. Even in Russian occupied Georgia, however, these Greeks had generally lived in the southern areas of the country which - like the Kars-Ardahan region - were part of the Lesser Caucasus highland plateau, rather than among the deep valleys and jagged mountain peaks of the High Caucasus range in northern Georgia. In terms of population, the areas in both Georgia and Kars province inhabited by the Caucasus Greeks tended to be those that also had large concentrations of Armenian population - one well-known product of this Greek-Armenian mix being the famous mystic and theosophist

North Ossetia. These same areas now in Georgia also had various pockets of Muslims of Turkish and non-Turkish (convert) ethnic origin - though the latter had generally become Turkish in speech and culture.[38]

Pontic Greek leaders from Georgia

The Caucasus Greeks of Kars Oblast were mainly concentrated in around 77 towns and villages as part of official Russian government policy to people a traditionally

Chveneburi) and Laz-Muslim or Christian but generally non-Orthodox Armenian area with a staunchly pro-Russian Christian Orthodox community.[39] In general they were settled on grassy highland plateaux, such as the Gole/Kiolias plateau of present-day Ardahan province, since these resembled their original lands in the Pontic Alps and later ones they had settled on in Georgia. In towns like Kars, Ardahan, and Sarikamish ethnic Greeks constituted only a small minority (10-15%) of the inhabitants, most of whom were Christian Armenians, Kurdish Muslims, or smaller numbers of Orthodox Georgians, while even many of the mainly ethnic Greek villages still included small numbers of Armenians (including Greek Orthodox Armenians), Georgians, and even Kurds, employed by the Greeks to look after the sheep, cattle, and horses.[40] The Caucasus Greeks of Kars Oblast were generally reasonably well educated, every village having its own school, although most were involved in farming, horse breeding, or mining for their livelihoods. A smaller but still significant number did, however, work outside the agricultural and mining sectors. In particular, many pursued careers as regular soldiers and officers in the Russian Imperial Army, in the regional police force, as clergymen, or even within the provincial Russian administration. Unlike the Pontic Greeks of the Black Sea coastal cities like Trebizond, however, very few Caucasus Greeks were involved in trade.[41]

Greek Macedonia
, where many Pontic Greeks and Caucasus Greeks resettled

Caucasus Greeks were often multilingual, able to speak, read, and write Greek and Russian and speak Eastern Anatolian Turkish, and sometimes also basic Georgian and Armenian.[42] Although their native language was Greek, generally only the most highly educated - such as scholars, lawyers, members of the Orthodox clergy educated in Russian universities, and other community leaders claiming noble or royal lineage extending back to the Empire of Trebizond - had more than an intermediate-level knowledge of formal Demotic Greek and the more classicizing Katharevousa of the late Byzantine period.[43] The majority were restricted to their own variant of Pontic Greek, which had a somewhat larger admixture of Turkish, Georgian, Russian, and Armenian vocabulary than the colloquial form of Greek used in Pontus proper.[44] However, the Caucasus Greeks had had to become fluent Russian speakers, as a result of the schooling and education policies implemented by the Russian Imperial government, although at home and amongst themselves they continued to favour Greek.[45] But Caucasus Greeks were still often conflated or confused with Russians in Kars Oblast because of their use of Russian and worship alongside Russians in the same Orthodox churches as well as their generally Russianized and pro-Russian empire outlook. In fact, one quite popular but stereotyped way local 'Turks' might differentiate Caucasus Greeks from other Pontic Greeks was by stating that the former were "Greeks who had taken the Borshch [soup] from the Russians"![46]

The Caucasus Greeks had close social links with the Greek Orthodox Russian settlers of Kars Oblast through worshiping in each other's churches as well as marrying partners of Russian Caucasus origin. These links were closer than those with either non-Orthodox Armenians or Orthodox Georgians, primarily because most of the former were not in communion with the

Eastern Anatolia, in contrast to the long-standing links Pontic Greeks had always had with the region.[49]

Contemporary (post-World War I)

During

Russian Caucasus Army, which was led by a coterie of senior Russian, Georgian, and Armenian officers. In the final stages of the war, a Greek Caucasus Division
was even established by bringing together Caucasus Greeks from different regiments of the Russian army in the South Caucasus, and whose primary purpose was to help defend ethnic Greek villages in the Kars, Erzerum, and Erzincan regions.

Most Caucasus Greeks left Kars Oblast following the cession of the area back to the Ottoman Empire in 1917, but before the official population exchange between Greece and Turkey in 1922-23.

Greek Macedonia previously inhabited by Ottoman Muslims, and again generally preferred those situated on grassy plateaux or mountain districts, since these most closely resembled their former home in the South Caucasus. However, like many other Greeks of Pontus and north-eastern Anatolia, significant numbers of Caucasus Greeks who wanted to remain in what was now Turkish territory at any cost chose to convert to Islam and adopt the Turkish language for public purposes so as to be exempted from the population exchange.[51] According to the terms of the population exchange protocol (which was essentially an appendage to the Treaty of Lausanne) the categories 'Greek' and 'Turk' were defined by religious affiliation rather than ethnicity, resulting in large numbers of Greek Muslims from Macedonia and Crete being categorized as 'Turkish in soul' and so resettled in the Turkish Aegean and parts of Anatolia.[52] Those Caucasus Greeks who had remained in north-eastern Anatolia, like the many other Pontic Greeks who had also converted to Islam and adopted the Turkish language, subsequently became assimilated into the wider Turkish-Muslim population of the provinces of Trabzon, Sivas, Erzurum, Erzinjan, Kars, and Ardahan.[53] However, after 1917 many Caucasus Greeks from Kars Oblast, and in particular those who had close Russian family links through intermarriage, also resettled in parts of Southern Russia that already had pre-existing communities of Pontic Greeks descended from earlier waves of refugees from northeastern Anatolia. These Greeks were based mainly in Stavropol Krai, in the foothills of the North Caucasus, where they still make up a significant element of the population (often up to 10%) in both urban and rural areas. They became fully assimilated into modern Russian life and society, although following the dissolution of the Soviet Union they substantially increased their links with Greece - and particularly with northern Greece - through work, trade, or study in their "mother" country and through taking up Greek nationality alongside their Russian one.[54]

Caucasus Greeks in contemporary Greek Macedonia

Most of the Caucasus Greeks of Kars Oblast who had not sided with the Bolsheviks subsequently left for Greece in 1919, before the province was officially re-incorporated into the territory of the new

KKE
, has never had anything to do with ideology but was actually due to residual pro-Russian sentiment and traditional family expectations, despite the fact that many had grandparents who had not remained in Russian territory precisely because they had not sided with the Bolsheviks.

The communist affiliations of most Caucasus Greeks has also been cited to account for why they often play down or even conceal any previous involvement their ancestors may have had in the Tsarist army or administration during the Russian occupation of the Transcaucasus region.

USSR and Czechoslovakia, playing down or concealing their community's previous links with the Russian Empire was an essential tactic to ensure a safe, secure, and flourishing life in a communist state and society. One example of a high ranking Caucasus Greek from Kars Oblast who spent much of his life fighting and propagandizing against Soviet communism, after having fought against the Bolsheviks with the forces of the White movement, was Constantine Kromiadi
.

Caucasus Greeks have generally assimilated well into modern Greek society, being successful within a broad range of trades and professions. They are generally conflated by other Greeks with the Pontic Greeks of Pontus proper, whom many in Greece see as very socially conservative, clan-like, and inward-looking. Otherwise, Caucasus Greeks are often inaccurately described by other Greeks as 'Russo-Pontic [Greeks]' and sometimes even confused with the many ethnic Greeks who came from Georgia and southern Russia in the mid-90s, particularly since they often live in the same parts of Thessaloniki, share a similar Pontic Greek dialect, and tend to have surnames ending in '-dis' (from the Ancient Greek for 'the sons of ... ').[59] However, it is generally the ethnic Greeks who came to Greek Macedonia from Georgia and southern Russia in the mid-1990s rather than the Caucasus Greeks who came shortly after 1919 that other Greeks often accuse of among other things being involved in organised crime in northern Greece and the wider Balkans and creating a kind of parallel, underground society.

The Caucasus Greeks and Pontic Greeks in general who settled in northern Greece between 1919 and 1923 have, on the other hand, had a lot more time to assimilate into contemporary Greek society than the more recent arrivals from Georgia and southern Russia, and as a consequence have a far better command of standard Modern Greek and awareness of mainstream Greek culture.[60] The Caucasus Greeks and Pontic Greeks of Greek Macedonia have still managed to preserve some of their unique traditions and have also established many cultural and civil society organisations. The aspect of Pontic Greek culture most apparent to the outside observer is their traditional food, costume, music, and dance, with those of the Caucasus Greeks reflecting heavier Russian, Georgian, and Armenian influences. For example, the traditional costume of Caucasus Greek women resembles that of southern Russian women, while the men's costume is light grey, in contrast to the black attire worn by Greek men from Pontus proper, which they share with the Muslim Laz of the eastern Pontic Alps.[61]

List of settlements in the Russian Transcaucasus with a sizeable population of Greeks

Although precise figures are difficult to verify, it is likely a total of around 56,350 Greeks lived within Kars Oblast until 1919. The following is a list of the towns and villages in which they lived, given in both Greek and English transliteration. The names of the vast majority of these settlements are evidently of Turkish or Armenian origin in

Batum Oblast and even many majority-Greek settlements were also inhabited by Christians from other ethnic groups, particularly Orthodox Georgians, Orthodox and/or Gregorian Armenians, and Orthodox and/or “Sectarian” Russians.[62][63][64][65][66][67][68][69][70][71][72]

A former Caucasus Greek village - Ali-Sofi of the Hellenes (Alisofu) today.
Greek village of Khandara (now Handere) church and school, circa 1890

A1) Villages and settlements with purely Caucasus Greek population in

Batum Oblast
:

  1. Ačkua.
  2. Akhalšeni.
  3. Dagva of the Hellenes.
  4. Kvirike of the Hellenes.

A2) Towns, villages and settlements with part Greek population in

Batum Oblast
:

  1. Artvin.
  2. Batum.
  3. Kobulety.

B1) Villages and settlements with purely or majority Caucasus Greek population in

Kars Oblast
:

  1. Abul’vart ~ village (
    Turkish
    : Abulbard.
  2. Ali-Sofi of the Hellenes ~ village (
    Turkish
    : Rum Alisofu.
  3. Ardost ~ village (
    Turkish
    : Ardos.
  4. Arsenyak of the Hellenes ~ village (
    Turkish
    : Ersinek.
  5. Azat ~ village (
    Turkish
    : Azat.
  6. Bagdat of the Hellenes ~ village (
    Turkish
    : Bağdat.
  7. Bardus ~ village (
    Turkish
    : Bardız.
  8. Beberek ~ village (
    Turkish
    : Beberek.
  9. Belyuk-Baš ~ village (
    Turkish
    : Bölükbaşı.
  10. Bezirgyan-Kečit ~ ~ village (
    Turkish
    : Bezirgângeçit.
  11. Čapik lower ~ village (
    Turkish
    : Aşağı Çeplik.
  12. Čapik upper ~ village (
    Turkish
    : Yukarı Çeplik.
  13. Čatakh ~ ~ village (
    Turkish
    : Çatak.
  14. Čermuk lower ~ village (
    Turkish
    : Aşağı Çermik.
  15. Čermuk upper ~ village (
    Turkish
    : Yukarı Çermik.
  16. Čilakhana ~ village (
    Turkish
    : Çilehane.
  17. Čiplakhly ~ village (
    Turkish
    : Çıplaklı.
  18. Demur-Kapi of the Hellenes ~ village (
    Turkish
    : Demirkapı[-i] Rum.
  19. Divik ~ village (
    Turkish
    : Divik.
  20. Dort-Kilisa ~ village (
    Turkish
    : Dörtkilise.
  21. El-Kečmaz ~ village (
    Turkish
    : Yolgeçmez.
  22. Engidža ~ village (
    Turkish
    : Yenice.
  23. Enikey ~ village (
    Turkish
    : Yeniköy.
  24. Fakhrel’ ~ village (
    Turkish
    : Fahrel or Fahril.
  25. Gadži-Vali ~ village (
    Turkish
    : Hacıveli.
  26. Garam-Vartan ~ village (
    Turkish
    : Hram[i] Vartan.
  27. Gyulyabert ~ village (
    Turkish
    : Gölebert.
  28. Islamzor ~ village (
    Turkish
    : Arslansor or İslâmsor.
  29. Ivanpol’ ~ village (
    Turkish
    : Mollamustafa.
  30. Kamyšly ~ village (
    Turkish
    : Kamışlı.
  31. Karakilisa ~ village (
    Turkish
    : Karakilise.
  32. Karakurt ~ village (
    Turkish
    : Karakurt.
  33. Karaurgan ~ ~ village (
    Turkish
    : Karaurgan.
  34. Kečevan ~ village (
    Turkish
    : Geçivan or Keçivan.
  35. Ker-ogly ~ village (
    Turkish
    : Köroğlu, Zağin or Zeğin.
  36. Kešar ~ village (
    Turkish
    : Keşar.
  37. Khalif-ogly of the Hellenes ~ village (
    Turkish
    : Halefoğlu.
  38. Khanakh lower ~ village (
    Turkish
    : Aşağı Hanak.
  39. Khandara ~ village (
    Turkish
    : Handere.
  40. Khaskey ~ village (
    Turkish
    : Hasköy, Hoçuvan or Hoçvan.
  41. Khaznadar ~ settlement (
    Turkish
    : Haznedar.
  42. Khinzrik ~ village (
    Turkish
    : Hınzırik.
  43. Kizil-Kilisa ~ village (
    Turkish
    : Kızılkilise.
  44. Konk ~ village (
    Turkish
    : Konk.
  45. Lale Varkenez village, now Balčeşme köyü. Often confused with Varkenez, the current, officially Turkish named village of Yanatlı köyü.
  46. Lal-ogly ~ village (
    Turkish
    : Laloğlu.
  47. Magaradžik ~ village (
    Turkish
    : Mağaracık.
  48. Makhsudžik ~ village (
    Turkish
    : Maksutçuk.
  49. Mečetly ~ village (
    Turkish
    : Mescitli.
  50. Medžingert lower ~ village (
    Turkish
    :Micingerd[-ı] Ulya or Yukarı Micingirt.
  51. Medžingert upper ~ village (
    Turkish
    : Micingerd[-ı] Süfla or Aşağı Micingirt.
  52. Merdenek ~ village (
    Turkish
    : Mardenik or Merdenik.
  53. Merines lower ~ village (
    Turkish
    : Aşağı Merinis.
  54. Merines upper ~ village (
    Turkish
    : Yukarı Merinis.
  55. Muzaret ~ village (
    Turkish
    : Muzaret.
  56. Nariman ~ village (
    Turkish
    : Narman.
  57. Olukhly ~ village (
    Turkish
    : Oluklu.
  58. Ortakey ~ village (
    Turkish
    : Ortaköy.
  59. Panžuret ~ village (
    Turkish
    : Pancırot or Pançırud.
  60. Posik ~ village (
    Turkish
    : Posik.
  61. Salut ~ village (
    Turkish
    : Salot or Salut.
  62. Salut lower ~ village (
    Turkish
    : Aşağı Salut.
  63. Samzalek ~ village (
    Turkish
    : Samzalek or Semzelek.
  64. Šaraf ~ village (
    Turkish
    : Şeref.
  65. Sindizgem ~ village (
    Turkish
    : Sindizkom.
  66. Subatan of the Hellenes ~ village (
    Turkish
    : Subatan.
  67. Syrbasan ~ village (
    Turkish
    : Sırbasan.
  68. Takhtakran ~ village (
    Turkish
    : Tahtakıran.
  69. Teknally of the Hellenes ~ village (
    Turkish
    : Tekneli.
  70. Torokhev lower ~ village (
    Turkish
    : Aşağı Toreshev.
  71. Tuygun ~ village (
    Turkish
    : Tuygun.
  72. Turkašen ~ village (
    Turkish
    : Türkaşen or Türkeşen.
  73. Uč-Kilisa ~ village (
    Turkish
    : Üçkilise.
  74. Varkenez ~ village (
    Turkish
    : Varginis. The village now has a mixed Kurdish and Turkish population, originally from southern and central Anatolia, who still prefer to use the original Greco-Armenian name instead of the post-1950 Turkish Yanatlı. Some of the current inhabitants claim an even older spelling had actually been with 't' rather than 'k'/'g', i.e., Vartenez.
  75. Verišan ~ village (
    Turkish
    : Verişan.
  76. Vezinkey ~ village (
    Turkish
    : Vezin[köy].
  77. Yagbasan ~ village (
    Turkish
    : Yağıbasan.
  78. Yalaguz-Čam ~ village (
    Turkish
    : Yalnızçam.
  79. Yemirkhan ~ village (
    Turkish
    : Emirhan or Kârcık.
  80. Zalladža ~ village (
    Turkish
    : Zellice.

B2) Towns, villages and settlements in

Kars Oblast
in which Caucasus Greeks made up a minority of the inhabitants:

  1. Akhkoz ~ village (Old Russian: селеніе selenie) in the Khorosan sub-district (old Russian: Хоросанскій участокъ Khorosanskiy učastok) of Kagyzman, nowadays Camuşlu köyü. Old Russian: Ахкозъ Akhkoz. Official Greek: Ἀτκὸς Atkòs, written in many monotonic versions ―for example: Άτγκιοζ, Άτκιοζ, Άτκιος, Ατκόζ, Ατκός, etc.―.
  2. ARDAGAN ~ town (
    Turkish
    : Ardahan.
  3. Begli-Akhmed ~ village (
    Turkish
    : Benliahmet.
  4. Eddykilisa ~ village (
    Turkish
    : Yedikilise.
  5. KAGYZMAN ~ town (
    Turkish
    : Kağızman.
  6. KARS ~ city (
    Turkish
    : Kars.
  7. Novo-Selim ~ village (
    Turkish
    : Selim[köy].
  8. Okam ~ village (
    Turkish
    : [H]okam.
  9. OL’TY ~ town (
    Turkish
    : Oltu.
  10. Sarykamyš lower ~ village (
    Turkish
    : Sarıkamış.
  11. Zyak ~ village (
    Turkish
    : Zayak or Zek.

People

See also

References

  1. ^ a b Mikhailidis, Christos & Athanasiadis, Andreas, Introduction.
  2. ^ Browning, Robert, p. 82.
  3. ^ Browning, Robert, p. 76.
  4. ^ Koromela and Evert, 1989
  5. ^ a b See Michel Bruneau, 'The Pontic Greeks: from Pontus to the Caucasus'
  6. ^ Xanthopoulou-Kyriakou, p. 53.
  7. ^ a b Xanthopoulou-Kyriakou, p. 64.
  8. ^ Mikhailidis, Christos & Athanasiadis, Andreas, p. 73.
  9. ^ Mikhailidis, Christos & Athanasiadis, Andreas, pp. 54-62.
  10. ^ Eloyeva, p. 87.
  11. ^ Anthony Bryer, 'The Empire of Trebizond and the Pontus' (Variourum, 1980), XI., p. 199.
  12. ^ See also Anthony Bryer, 'The Empire of Trebizond and the Pontus' (Variourum, 1980), V., p. 142.
  13. ^ See also Anthony Bryer, 'The Empire of Trebizond and the Pontus' (Variourum, 1980), XI, p. 42.
  14. ^ Mikhailidis, Christos & Athanasiadis, Andreas, p. 29.
  15. ^ Anderson, 1967
  16. ^ Coene (2011), p. 67.
  17. ^ Mikhailidis, Christos & Athanasiadis, Andreas, p. 28.
  18. ^ Browning, p. 119.
  19. ^ Xanthopoulou-Kyriakou, p. 66.
  20. ^ Mikhailidis, Christos & Athanasiadis, Andreas, p. 88.
  21. ^ Mikhailidis, Christos & Athanasiadis, Andreas, p. 33.
  22. ^ Eloyeva, p. 27.
  23. ^ Eloyeva, 1994
  24. ^ Topalidis, p. 98.
  25. ^ Koromela, p. 43.
  26. ^ Bryer, The Empire of Trebizond and the Pontus, (Variorum, 1980), XI., p. 41.
  27. ^ Acherson, ch. 10.
  28. ^ Mikhailidis, Christos & Athanasiadis, Andreas, p. 17.
  29. ^ Coene, ch. 1.
  30. ^ Mikhailidis, Christos & Athanasiadis, Andreas, p. 55.
  31. ^ Mikhailidis, Christos & Athanasiadis, Andreas, p. 63.
  32. ^ Mikhailidis, Christos & Athanasiadis, Andreas, p. 67.
  33. ^ Papadopoulos, p. 54.
  34. ^ Mikhailidis, Christos & Athanasiadis, Andreas, p. 61.
  35. ^ Papadopoulos, p. 75.
  36. ^ Drury, Ian, The Russo-Turkish War of 1877
  37. ^ Topalidis, 2006
  38. ^ Mikhailidis, Christos & Athanasiadis, Andreas, p. 43.
  39. ^ Koromela, p. 74.
  40. ^ Mikhailidis & Athanasiadis, pp. 45-76.
  41. ^ Mikhailidis, Christos & Athanasiadis, Andreas, p. 42.
  42. ^ Koromela, p. 96.
  43. ^ Mikhailidis & Athanasiadis, p. 59.
  44. ^ Topalidis, 1996, and Koromela & Evert, 1989
  45. ^ Mikhailidis & Athanasiadis, p. 60.
  46. ^ Kazanoglu, 'Greeks in Kars'.
  47. ^ Koromela, p. 53.
  48. ^ Caucasus Calendar, Introduction.
  49. ^ Xanthopoulou-Kyriakou, 1991
  50. ^ Xanthopoulou-Kyriakou, p. 8.
  51. ^ Papadopoulos, 2012.
  52. ^ Koromela, p. 66.
  53. ^ Xanthopoulou-Kyriakou, 1991.
  54. ^ Mikhailidis, Christos & Athanasiadis, Andreas, p. 86.
  55. ^ Xanthopoulou-Kyriakou, p. 79.
  56. ^ Xanthopoulou-Kyriakou, ch. 7.
  57. ^ Woodhouse, 1984
  58. ^ Xanthopoulou-Kyriakou, p. 143.
  59. ^ Xanthopoulou-Kyriakou, p. 121.
  60. ^ Topalidis, p. 82.
  61. ^ Topalidis, p. 137.
  62. ^ Σάββας Καλεντερίδης, “Ανατολικός Πόντος”, 2006.
  63. ^ Ισαάκ Λαυρεντίδη,“Μετοικεσία Καυκασίων 1895-1907”.
  64. ^ Ιωάννης Καλφόγλου Μαρκήσιο-Φωτιάδη, “Οι Έλληνες εν Καυκάσω”, Αθήνα (1908).
  65. ^ Статистика Россійской Имперіи: Перепись 1886 годъ (Statistics of the Russian Empire: Census 1886).
  66. ^ 1-й годъ Памятная Книжка и адресъ-календарь КАРССКОЙ ОБЛАСТИ на 1902 годъ, изданіе КАРССКАГО ОБЛАСТНОГО Статистическаго Комитета подъ редакціею Секретаря Комитета С. В. Ермолаева (1° Memorial Book of the Kars Oblast‘ {1902 Edition}, compiled by the Kars Oblast’ Statistical Committee, edited by the Committee Segretar S. V. Ermolaev).
  67. ^ 3-й годъ Памятная Книжка и адресъ-календарь КАРССКОЙ ОБЛАСТИ на 1906 годъ, изданіе КАРССКАГО ОБЛАСТНОГО Статистическаго Комитета подъ редакціею Секретаря Комитета С. В. Ермолаева (3° Memorial Book of the Kars Oblast‘ {1906 Edition}, compiled by the Kars Oblast’ Statistical Committee, edited by the Committee Segretar S. V. Ermolaev).
  68. ^ 4-й годъ Памятная Книжка и адресъ-календарь КАРССКОЙ ОБЛАСТИ на 1908 годъ, изданіе КАРССКАГО ОБЛАСТНОГО Статистическаго Комитета подъ редакціею Секретаря Комитета С. В. Ермолаева (4° Memorial Book of Kars Oblast‘ {1908 Edition}, compiled by the Kars Oblast’ Statistical Committee, edited by the Committee Segretar S. V. Ermolaev).
  69. ^ 5-й годъ Памятная Книжка и адресъ-календарь КАРССКОЙ ОБЛАСТИ на 1910 годъ, изданіе КАРССКАГО ОБЛАСТНОГО Статистическаго Комитета подъ редакціею Секретаря Комитета С. В. Ермолаева (5° Memorial Book of the Kars Oblast‘ {1910 Edition}, compiled by the Kars Oblast’ Statistical Committee, edited by the Committee Segretar S. V. Ermolaev).
  70. ^ LXVII годъ Кавказскій календарь на 1912 годъ, изданъ по распоряженію Намѣстника ЕГО ИМПЕРАТОРСКАГО ВЕЛИЧЕСТВА на Кавказѣ Канцеляріей Намѣстника (67° Almanac of the Caucasus 1912 Edition, published by order of the office of the Viceroy of HIS IMPERIAL MAJESTY in the Caucasus).
  71. ^ 6-й годъ Памятная Книжка и адресъ-календарь КАРССКОЙ ОБЛАСТИ на 1912 годъ, изданіе КАРССКАГО ОБЛАСТНОГО Статистическаго Комитета подъ редакціею Секретаря Комитета Подполковника Б. С. Экадзе (6° Memorial Book of the Kars Oblast‘ {1912 Edition}, compiled by the Kars Oblast’ Statistical Committee, edited by the Committee Segretar Lieutenant Colonel B. S. Yekadze).
  72. ^ LXX годъ Кавказскій календарь на 1915 годъ, изданъ по распоряженію Намѣстника ЕГО ИМПЕРАТОРСКАГО ВЕЛИЧЕСТВА на Кавказѣ Канцеляріей Намѣстника, подъ редакціей А.А.Эльзенгера и Н.П.Стельмащукa (70° Almanac of the Caucasus {1915 Edition}, published by order of the office of the Viceroy of HIS IMPERIAL MAJESTY in the Caucasus, edited by A. A. Ėl’zenger and N. P. Stel’maščuk).

Bibliography

  • Acherson, Neal, 'Black Sea' (Jonathan Cape, London, 1995).
  • Anderson, A. M., 'The Eastern Question' (1967).
  • Browning, Robert, 'The Byzantine Empire' (1980).
  • Caucasus Calendar, 1912 (British Government War Office Publication, 1914).
  • Coene, Frederik, 'The Caucasus - An Introduction', (2011)
  • Drury, Ian, The Russo-Turkish War of 1877 (1994).
  • Eloyeva, FA, 'Ethnic Greek Group of Tsalka and Tetritskaro (Georgia)', Amsterdam Studies in the Theory and Practice of Linguistic (1994).
  • Gocha, R. Tsetskhladze 'Greek Colonization of the Eastern Black Sea Littoral (Colchis)',(1992).
  • Koromela, Marianna and Evert, Lisa,'Pontos-Anatolia : northern Asia Minor and the Anatolian plateau east of the upper Euphrates : images of a Journey', (1989).
  • Mikhailidis, Christos & Athanasiadis, Andreas, 'A Generation in the Russian Caucasus'- in Greek, Γεννηθείς εις Καύκασον Ρωσίας (Inthognomon, 2007).
  • Morison, John, Ethnic and National Issues in Russian and East European History (Selected Papers from the Fifth World Congress, 2000)
  • Papadopoulos, Stephanos, 'Black Sea' (Kastaniotis Publications, 2012).
  • Soteriou, Dido, 'Farewell Anatolia' (Kedros, 1996).
  • Topalidis, Sam, 'A Pontic Greek History' (2006).
  • Woodhouse, C. M. 'The Struggle for Greece, 1941-1949' (1984).
  • Xanthopoulou-Kyriakou, Artemis, 'The Diaspora of the Greeks of the Pontos: Historical Background', Journal of Refugee Studies, 4, (1991).
  • [1] (article on migration of Pontic Greeks from Russian South Caucasus to Greek Macedonia, between 1897 and 1919)
  • http://www.academia.edu/4067183/ANTON_POPOV_From_Pindos_to_Pontos_the_Ethnicity_and_Diversity_of_Greek_Communities_in_Southern_Russia

External links

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