Ancient Celtic warfare

Ancient Celtic warfare refers to the historical methods of warfare employed by various Celtic people and tribes from Classical antiquity through the Migration period.

Unlike modern military systems, Celtic groups did not have a standardized regular military. Instead, their organization varied depending on clan groupings and social class within each tribe.

Endemic warfare was a common and significant aspect of life in Celtic societies. However, the organizational structures of these tribes differed widely. Some had rigid hierarchies with ruling monarchies, while others operated with representational structures resembling republics.

Over time, the expansionist policies of the Roman Empire led to the incorporation of many continental Celtic peoples into Roman rule, such as southern Britain. Resulting in the adoption of Roman culture by Gallic and Brittonic cultures. This led to the rise of hybrid cultures known as Gallo-Roman and Romano-British during Late antiquity. As a consequence, Celtic culture became predominantly confined to Insular Celtic people.

While archaeological discoveries offer valuable insights into the material culture of the Celts, determining the precise nature of their ancient combat techniques remains a topic of speculation.

Mythological

Archaeology provides much information regarding the material culture of the Celts, especially that of the La Tène culture and Hallstatt culture. However, the significance of these finds in determining how the ancient Celts actually fought is the subject of much speculation and debate. It was long thought, for instance, that the Celts were headhunters, but recent research from France has indicated that it may have been the heads of slain allies that were collected to be placed in porticos, while the defeated were dumped in mass graves, their weapons ritually broken.^[3]

Hallstatt cultures 1200 BC to 450 BC

The Hallstatt culture is the earliest to be identified as associated with Celtic culture, spreading from north of the Alps west into France, Southern Britain and the Iberian Peninsula. The earlier phases of the Hallstatt era fall into the Bronze Age. Swords seem to have been the primary weapon from this period, perhaps indicating that warfare was a relatively small scale affair, possibly between groups of elite warriors.

In the latter phases of the Hallstatt era, iron began to replace bronze in the manufacture of weapons, and the classic "

At the very end of the Hallstatt era, the longsword seemed to fall out of favor, ousted by shorter, thrusting daggers which are found in greater numbers among grave goods in high status burials.^[5]

La Tène Culture 450 BC to 50 BC

The La Tène period saw changing patterns of warfare. At the beginning of the La Tène period warfare was likely conducted on a small scale between elite warriors, perhaps in chariots, wielding a new type of Celtic longsword.

During the succeeding centuries the design of the sword changed, characteristically becoming shorter, single-edged and lacking a thrusting point, designed purely to make a cut (although the Hallstatt era sword had also been primarily a slashing weapon).^[6] and greater regional variation in swords appeared: in Britain and Ireland even the longer sword designs were shorter and thinner than their Continental counterparts.^[7] It is possible that in the later La Tène era, an increasing population would have led to larger armies organized in ranks of spearmen, leading to a decline in the importance of the champion with his sword and hence a decline in sword functionality.

The La Tène era also saw the development of armor in the form of

Chariot burials continued well into the La Tène period, suggesting their continued importance in warfare. The La Tène chariot was a light, two-wheeled vehicle, unlike the heavier chariot of earlier times. The arrangement of the chariot poles in a reconstruction of the

Roman conquest eventually extinguished the cultural and political independence of all the Celtic peoples starting on the Italian peninsula, then the Iberian Peninsula, Anatolia, Gaul and finally southern Britain. Celtic cultural independence survived only in Ireland, Scotland, Wales and Cumbria.

After the Roman era, only in the British Isles, therefore, could there be said to still exist a distinctly Celtic culture, peoples and style of warfare. Ireland was the last region to adopt the La Tène style of Celtic culture and technology with a smaller and less dense population than that of the British or Continental Celts, the Gaelic Irish sustained an era of small scale elite clan warfare for much longer.^[9]

The best known Roman source for descriptions of Celtic warfare was from Julius Caesar in his Commentaries on the Gallic Wars in which he describes the methods of warfare of both the Gauls and the Britons.

The Gallic Wars were a series of military campaigns waged by the Roman proconsul against Gallic tribes, lasting from 58 BC to 51 BC. The Romans would also raid Britannia and Germania, but these expeditions never developed into full-scale invasions. The Gallic Wars culminated in the decisive Battle of Alesia in 52 BC, in which a complete Roman victory resulted in the expansion of the Roman Republic over the whole of Gaul. These wars paved the way for Caesar to become the sole ruler of the Roman Republic.

The other popular image of pre-Roman Britain, the scythed chariot, is not mentioned by Caesar either but alluded to by later commentators, such as Pomponius Mela, during and after the Roman conquest.

Celtic troop types and organization

No Celtic group employed a regular military as we would understand it. Organization was according to

The earliest Celtic encounter with

Following the Celtic invasion of Greece in the 3rd century BC, the proliferation of elements of Celtic styles of weaponry and equipment had spread both far and wide, such as chain mail-style armor, the Montefortino, Coolus and Aden style helmets, thyreos-style body shields, and gladius and spatha style swords. Even though Celtic peoples had access to iron swords and armor, they were only available to a select few within Celtic society. Thus, aside from the King, Chief and wealthy nobility, body armor was rare, with most warriors wearing colorful cloaks or tunics, shirts, and pants, although some may have stripped to the waist or in some instances wore nothing at all into battle. The Celts’ main early advantage was their ability to scare and intimidate foes on the battlefield. Thus, even though most Celtic warriors were unarmored, the Celts themselves fought in the manner of heavy infantry, using fear and shock tactics as a form of psychological warfare while closing in on enemy formations in dense masses in order to break enemy lines and rout formations. This was an incredibly successful and effective tactic at first, such as at the Battle of the Allia.

Celtic peoples were also renowned for their skill as

The instrument's upright carriage allowed its notes to carry over the heads of the participants in battles and ceremonies.

In earlier encounters with the Romans, such as the Battle of Sentinum, some Celts would employ the chariot.^[29] Although chariots had fallen out of use in continental Europe from the end of the 3rd century BC, Caesar found that they remained significant in Brittonic warfare. If his descriptions are to be believed, he encountered in Britain an army in transition, possessing cavalry but still with an elite fighting from chariots. He describes how these warriors would throw javelins from their vehicles before abandoning them to fight on foot and returning to them in order to retreat or redeploy.^[30] Cavalry proper is described as used for skirmishing. Gauls are said to have commented that they themselves had formerly used chariots but had abandoned them by this time.

Their mode of fighting with their chariots is this: firstly, they drive about in all directions and throw their weapons and generally break the ranks of the enemy with the very dread of their horses and the noise of their wheels; and when they have worked themselves in between the troops of horse, leap from their chariots and engage on foot. The charioteers in the meantime withdraw a little distance from the battle, and so place themselves with the chariots that, if their masters are overpowered by the number of the enemy, they may have a ready retreat to their own troops. Thus they display in battle the speed of horse, [together with] the firmness of infantry.^[31]

Mercenaries

See also:

Mercenaries of the ancient Iberian peninsula

Celtic warriors served as

Asia Minor known as Galatia. Galatia became well known as a source of mercenaries throughout the Eastern Mediterranean region. Illustrations showing troops armed with long, straight swords and oval shields have generally been taken to depict Galatians

.

The Greek historian Polybius gives an account of the Battle of Telamon 225 BC in which the Romans defeated an invasion by the Boii, Insubres, Taurisci and Gaesatae. The Gaesatae were said to be a group of warriors who fought for hire and it is they who are described in the most detail. Whereas the Boii and Insubres wore trousers and cloaks which were thick enough to afford limited protection from the Roman javelins, the Gaesatae removed their clothes to fight naked, standing in front of their allies and seeking to intimidate the Romans with shouting and gesturing. However, this lack of protection caused their defeat since they carried relatively small shields which did not adequately protect them against the missile fire of the Roman skirmishers. Suffering heavy casualties, the Gaesatae either fled the battlefield or desperately charged headlong into the Roman lines where, outmatched for both numbers and equipment, they were defeated. What position the Gaesatae occupied in Celtic society has been much debated. Early writers assumed that they were a tribe, but later authors have inclined to the view that they may have been groups of unattached young warriors who lived by raiding and mercenary activities like the early Roman iuventes or the semi-legendary Irish fianna.^[33]

There are accounts of Celtic soldiers working as mercenaries for many of the great dynasties of the

King of Judea, Herod.^[34]

Navy

Main article: Veneti (Gaul)

While relatively little has been written about Celtic warfare at sea, the Gallic Veneti, a tribe dwelling on the southern coast of Armorica (Brittany), along the Gulf of Morbihan, was well known and renowned among the Gauls as a strong seafaring people .

The Veneti had trading stations in

Atlantic

sea. The Veneti designed and maneuvered their vessels so skillfully that boarding was near impossible on open water.

Following the beginning of the

conquest of Gaul but before his invasion of Britain.^[35] They targeted the Romans for raiding and maintained positive trade relations with the Britons across the channel. Given the highly defensible nature of the Veneti sea strongholds, land attacks were frustrated by the incoming tide, and naval forces were left trapped on the rocks vulnerable when the tide ebbed. Their capital, Darioritum, in modern-day Vannes

, was extremely difficult to attack from land.

At first the Roman galleys, fighting in unfamiliar conditions, were at a great disadvantage and suffered defeats and setbacks. Julius Caesar gave Decimus Junius Brutus Albinus command of the Roman fleet and the Roman navy adopted new tactics in order to quell the activities of the Veneti once and for all. Instead of boarding or capturing ships, the Romans would simply set them on fire. The Roman fleet under Albinus subjected the Veneti to savage reprisals for their earlier defiance. This culminated in the Battle of Morbihan when the Romans succeeded in setting aflame and destroying the entire Gallic fleet in Quiberon Bay, with Caesar watching from the shore. Following this defeat, their maritime commerce and trade activities declined under the Roman Empire.^[36]

Fortifications

Main articles: Oppidum, Hillfort, and Ringfort

Large stores of slingstones aerodynamically shaped by adding clay have been found in the Southern British hillfort of Maiden Castle^[37] which indicates that slings must also have played a role in the conflicts between Celtic tribes there, probably in sieges.

The

Murus Gallicus and Pfostenschlitzmauer constructions. The larger settlements in Gaul were described by Julius Caesar as oppida and the term is now used to designate the large pre-Roman towns that existed all across Western and Central Europe, many of which grew from hill forts. There are over 2000 of these forts known in Britain alone.^[38]

The

Celtic circular wall of Otzenhausen is one of the biggest fortifications the Celts ever constructed. It was built by Celts of the Treveri tribe, who lived in the region north of the fort. The fort is located on top of the Dollberg, a hill near Otzenhausen in Germany

, about 695 m above sea level. The only visible remains are two circular earth ramparts, covered with stones.

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External influence

Celts were influenced by other peoples but they heavily influenced the warfare of their enemies.

Germanic Cultures

Main article:

Germanic warfare

Celtic influence on

Poseidonios, where there is a hierarchy for the warrior's companions, from the shield-bearers to the spear-bearers and finally the chief at the top.^[47] The presence of La Tène items in Thuringia could also be due to a growing influence of Przeworsk culture from the east at the end of the 1st century BC.^[48]

Close to the Rhine, in the region of Westphalia and Lower Saxony, multiple La Tène spearheads have been identified in local context at Borchen-Gellinghausen,^[49] Olfen-Kökelsum^[50] and Schnippenburg, and two La Tène swords at Wilzenberger.^[51] Schnippenburg's site is an interesting case of Middle La Tène influence on several aspect of the local lifestyle (fortification, adornment, weaponry, cult). Quoting Sebastian Möllers: "Until 10 to 15 years ago, there was still the assumption that the La Tène culture was largely confined to the described core space. However, the results of recent research paint a whole new picture. And especially in this context, the findings of the Schnippenburg is a very special place."^[52]

The Przeworsk culture is a culture beginning at the 2nd century BC; it is characterized by a cultural facies strongly influenced by the La Tène culture.^[53][54][55] Compared to Elbe cultural groups, the Przeworsk culture is best documented regarding weaponry prior to the period of the Roman Empire, as cremation graves are frequently accompanied by weapons. It is generally interpreted as warlike society.^[56] On the matter, Celtic iron chain belts, iron scabbards, spurs, knives and fibula are found in the graves.^{[53][57][58][59]} In contrast to the scabbards found in other Germanic regions, Przeworsk culture seems to have adopted the characteristic suspension of Middle La Tène swords during the first half of the 2nd century BC.^[60] Although single edged swords commonly related to Germanic cultures are also common in warrior graves. A sword with a bronze pseudo-anthropomorphic hilt elements typical of the Middle La Tène has been discovered in the Vistula River close to the village of Siarzewo (Poland).^[61]

Thracians

Main article: Thracian warfare

The Celts influenced Thracian warfare in the adoption of certain long swords by the Triballi, for example, although this was not universal among the Thracians. Another weapon, the sica, was called the Thracian sword^[62] (Ancient Greek: Θρᾳκικὸν ξίφος) though it did not originate there, despite its popular usage.^[63] Considered Thrace's national weapon, the sword's ultimate origin was the Hallstatt culture^[64] and the Thracians may have or adopted or inherited it.

Dacians

Main articles:

Celts in Transylvania

Several archaeological discoveries suggest an important influence on the

Toarcla.^[65] Celts introduced their typical horned saddle as it is observed in Dacian necropolis along items belonging to the La Tène culture.^[65][66] Dacians incorporated Celtic long swords, round shield bosses and helmets in their panoply, a good example is the tumulus N°2 of Cugir necropolis.^[67][68][69] Iron chain belts and chainmails are also interpreted as the result of Celtic influence.^[70][71] The Celtic-Germanic Bastarnae were an important part of the Dacian army when they inflicted a harsh defeat to Gaius Antonius Hybrida.^[72][73] The Celts played a very active role in Dacia^[74] and the Celtic Scordisci were among the tribes allied to the Dacians.^[75]

Illyrians

Main article: Illyrian warfare

Pannonians.^[77] A type of wooden oblong shield with an iron boss was introduced to Illyria from the Celts. Hallstatt culture influences abounded as the Illyrians were also its descendants.^[78]

Greeks

Main article: Hellenistic armies

The

From their earliest interactions, the major civilizations of Classical antiquity such as Greek, Roman, Etruscan and Macedonian civilizations faced major threats from the Celtic world. Early in the period, the Etruscans had to deal with the Celtic Biturges' mass migration crossing the Alps under the lead of Bellovesus in the 5th century BC. The Romans' first major encounter with the Celts, at the Battle of the Allia, was an outright disaster for the fledgling Roman Republic. The inexperienced Roman army was routed; this defeat culminated with the Senones, led by their war leader, Brennus, sacking the city except for the Capitoline Hill. Even though the Romans were able to save their city and wrest control back, these events left a lasting impression on the Roman people.

The Greeks and Macedonians had their own issues with the Gallic tribes. Celts originating from various La Tène chiefdoms and Noricum began a mass migration and settlement of the Balkans from the 4th century BC. These expeditions were led by multiple leaders, including another Brennus, Acichorious, Bolgios, Cerethrius and Leonnorius. These migrations had a massive impact on the region and culminated with a series of events: the defeat and decapitation of the Macedonian king, Ptolemy Ceraunus, the defeat of a Greek Army at the Battle of Thermopolaye, the subsequent attack on Delphi and finally the foundations of the settlement in Asia Minor that became home to the Galatians. This series of events left a lasting impression on the Greeks.

Later, the military position was reversed as the

Both the Greeks and Romans found the Celtic decapitation practices shocking, and the Romans made sure to put an end to them when Celtic regions came under their control. However, Greeks and Romans both employed decapitation and other horrific tortures, highlighting a tendency to view practices as more shocking when carried out by an outside group, even if the practices were essentially similar.[87]

In the 5th century BC, Greek writer

List of Celtic conflicts and battles

This is a list of battles or conflicts in which

BCE

CE

See also

• Celts
• Celts in Transylvania
• Ancient warfare
• Roman–Gallic wars
• Gallic Invasion of the Balkans
• Galatian War
• Celtiberian Wars
• Cantabrian Wars
• Gallic Wars
• Dacian warfare
• Gaelic warfare
• Germanic warfare
• Illyrian warfare
• Thracian warfare
• Trimarcisia
• Warfare in the ancient Iberian peninsula
• List of ancient Celtic peoples and tribes

References