Censorship in the Russian Empire
Part of a series on |
Censorship by country |
---|
Countries |
See also |
In the Russian Empire, government agencies exerted varying levels of control over the content and dissemination of books, periodicals, music, theatrical productions, works of art, and motion pictures. The agency in charge of censorship in the Russian Empire changed over time. In the early eighteenth century, the Russian emperor had direct control, but by the end of the eighteenth century, censorship was delegated to the Synod, the Senate, and the Academy of Sciences. Beginning in the nineteenth century, it fell under the charge of the Ministry of Education and finally the Ministry of Internal Affairs.
The history of censorship in the Russia began long before the emergence of the empire. The first book containing an index of prohibited works dates to the year 1073, in
Significant changes in censorship policy occurred over the course of the imperial period. The reforms of Peter I marked the beginning of the separation between ecclesiastical and secular censorship.[3] A greater delineation of the responsibilities of censorship organizations took place in the reign of Empress Elizabeth. The period of Elizabeth's reign is also notable for the appearance of the first private journals, which greatly promoted the development of journalism in the Russian Empire.[4] One of the most important events in the history of Russian censorship occurred in the course of Catherine II's reforms: the establishment of a censorship institute and the creation of the position of professional censor. Paul I, Catherine's son, continued the business of his predecessor, by expanding the areas that were subject to state control.[5] Alexander I, however, reversed some of these policies and weakened the censorship.[2][6] In the second half of the nineteenth century, under Alexander III, freedom of the press was once again significantly restricted.[7]
Many classics of Russian literature were affected by censorship, and the censor was regularly represented as a grotesque figure and made the target of satire. Imperial censorship was followed by Soviet censorship, which adopted many of its features and continued until 1990.
Historical background
Kievan Rus and the Grand Duchy of Moscow
Censorship in Russia dates back to long before the codified legal censorship of the Russian Empire. The first known list of banned books is found in the
The second translated work containing an index of prohibited books was the Taktikon by the monk
The first native Slavic list of banned books is thought to be the index included in the Pogodinsky Nomokanon, dated to the fourteenth century. This was the first list to include works by a Slavic author, the Bulgarian priest Jeremiah, including his Story about a Red Tree and some other works. The index also prohibited religious texts that were later popular among the so-called
Tsardom of Russia
According to G. V. Zhirkov, "official" censorship of book publishers began in the
Adopted in 1551, the Stoglav was the first official censorship document in Russia. It was a reaction to the development of literacy and the emergence of an increasing number of literary works, the content of which did not always fit with church and state doctrine. In the period from 1551 to 1560 at least twelve documents and deeds were published establishing new measures and regulations in accordance with the Stoglav.[12] The church in its new censorship capacity focused mainly on the fight against deviations from church doctrines and sacred texts, heresy, and schism. The majority of the "apostates" fled abroad, particularly to Lithuania. The pioneering printers Ivan Fyodorov and Pyotr Mstislavets also fled to Lithuania, fearing persecution by the Josephite-dominated church leadership.[13] With the invention of the printing press, the priest-scribes who had previously dominated the book industry saw their incomes decline and erupted in protest, and as a result, Fyodorov and Mstislavets were accused of heresy. After a fire in their printing house in 1566, the publishers finally decided to leave Moscow. Fyodorov later commented, "Envy and hatred drove us from our country, fatherland, and kin to other lands, hitherto unknown."[14]
The seventeenth century repeatedly saw bans of books created in the territory of modern
Peter I's reforms
The history of censorship took a new turn in response to the development of secular publishing. In 1700, Peter I gave his friend, the Amsterdam merchant Jan Tessing,[20] a monopoly over the printing of books for Russia for fifteen years—the books were printed in Amsterdam, then imported and sold in Russia. At the same time the Petrine government set penalties for trafficking in printed materials from other foreign printers and introduced the requirement that the books had to be published "for the glory of the great sovereign" and were not to include any "abasement of our Imperial Majesty [...] and our state".[21] In 1701 Tessing died and his master-printer moved the operation to Russia.[22]
The only censor at this time was the Emperor himself, and the whole printing industry was in the hands of the state.[21] As part of Peter's ecclesiastical reforms, he introduced legislative changes that limited the power of the church in the field of book censorship. This included a provision that forbade monks to own personal writing instruments: Peter decreed in 1701 that "Monks in cells do not have the right to write any writings; there should be no ink or paper in the cells, but in the refectory there will be a specified place for writing, with the permission of the head of the monastery".[3]
Within four years, the first civil (as opposed to ecclesiastical) presses were opened St. Petersburg and Moscow. In 1718 the tsar ordered
In the same year Peter created a new censorship body, the Izugrafskaya Palata, as a countermeasure against those who were trading "pages with various images without permission and without supervision" on the Bridge of the Savior in Moscow. The printing of engraved lubki and parsuny (portraits) was prohibited "under penalty of a strict response and ruthless fines". By 1723 this prohibition extended to "improper" royal portraits. In tandem with this, an attempt was made to conduct a similar mandatory censorship of books, but only to new publications, not canonical church writings.[25]
In addition, Peter put an end to the monopoly of the Church in matters of printing. In 1708 he began to take steps to introduce a civil alphabet, for which he prepared the first drafts. He also invited foreign engravers to Russia to ensure the quality of the illustrations in published books. Paper mills and new printing houses were built.[26]
During Peter's reign, the first printed newspaper appeared in Russia—Vedomosti (1702–1728)—and with it came the first censorship of periodicals. Peter personally supervised its publication and many issues saw the light only with the approval of the tsar.
Elizabeth's reforms
The final separation of religious and secular censorship was brought about by the Empress Elizabeth, who ordered that "all printed books in Russia pertaining to the Church and the teachings of the Church should be published with the approbation of the Holy Synod, and civil books and other kinds of books not pertaining to the church, with the approbation of the Governing Senate". Nevertheless, according to Zhirkov, Elizabeth's censorship was somewhat disordered;[26] A notable aspect of Elizabeth's reign was her attempts to destroy all traces of the previous short reign of her ousted predecessor, Anna Leopoldovna.[21] Thus, with the decree of October 27, 1742, Elizabeth ordered a review of all books published in the period from October 17, 1740, to November 25, 1741.[27]
On September 18, 1748, the Synod resolved that "wherever printed church books with one of the mentioned titles are found in someone's possession, these should be gathered ... and, taking out of them only the pages in need of correction, to send them to the printer, where they will be printed, as soon as possible, without delay or slowness".[27] The state also strengthened its control of the import of literature from abroad; before publications in foreign languages could be sold in the Empire, they had to undergo a review, in case they mentioned undesirable persons.
At the same time the church strengthened its control over lubki pictures. The Synod demanded the control of the publication of all
Paul I's reforms
, and many more.19th century
In 1804, the Bureau of Censorship was set up in the Ministry of Education. In addition to censoring certain material, the Bureau reported the authors to the "Section Three" – the secret police. The Foreign Censorship Committee operations have been analyzed by Choldin.[28]
Censorship during the First World War
In 1913, according to Reifman, 372 fees were imposed on the press, for a total of 140 thousand rubles, 216 issues were confiscated, 63 editors were arrested, and 20 newspapers were closed down. "Full" censorship was established only in areas of military actions, and "partial" censorship outside of those areas. The authorities, however, had the prerogative to determine the locations of military areas.[29]
Zhirkov, however, calls this time "the flowering of Russian journalism", characterized by expanding discussions about freedom of speech and growing discontent with the repressive interior ministry MIA among publishers and journalists. On July 20, 1914, the law "Provisional regulations on military censorship" was published.
Establishment of Soviet censorship
Но ты опять, растоптанное слово,
Бессмертное, свободное живёшь,
И мщение готовишь ты сурово,
И стрелы смертоносные куёшь!
But you again, the trampled word,
Live immortal and free,
And you prepare a harsh vengeance,
And you forge deadly arrows!
Fyodor Sologub, "1917"[32]
After the fall of the monarchy and the collapse of the empire, the institution of censorship was preserved, though transformed. In the words of Pavel Reifman: "Soviet censorship did not come out of nowhere. It was the successor of the pre-revolutionary Russian censorship, the censorship of a centuries-old autocratic Russia".[33] On March 9, 1917, the Provisional Government eliminated the main center of tsarist censorship—the Main Committee on Matters of the Press—and introduced the post of Commissar on Matters of the Press. On May 16 the Bulletin of the Provisional Government published the legislative decree stating: "The press and the trade of printed works are free. It is not allowed to apply administrative penalties to the press." In reality, such freedom was never fully achieved. Pyotr Wrangel wrote that with the freedom given to left-wing propaganda, right-wing newspapers were closed down and confiscated. Subsequently, in response to the crisis of the July Days, the government gave the minister of war the right to close publications that called for military rebellion and disobedience on the front, which led to the repression of Bolshevik newspapers.[34]
See also
Notes
- ^ a b c d Кобяк, Н. А. "Списки отреченных книг". Институт русской литературы (Пушкинский дом) РАН. pushkinskijdom.ru. Archived from the original on 2011-09-22. Retrieved 10 December 2011.
- ^ a b Bol'shaia Sovetskaia Entsiklopediia, s.v. "Tsenzura", retrieved on 25 August 2011.
- ^ a b c "Цензура". Brockhaus and Efron Encyclopedic Dictionary: In 86 Volumes (82 Volumes and 4 Additional Volumes). St. Petersburg. 1890–1907.
{{cite book}}
: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link) - ^ a b Zhirkov, "XVIII vek: period perekhoda ot dukhovnoi k svetskoi tsenzure" (2001)
- ^ a b c d e Reifman, P. S. "Chast' pervaia. Rossiiskaia tsenzura. Glava 1. Vstuplenie". Iz istorii russkoi, sovetskoi i postsovetskoi tsenzury. reifman.ru. Archived from the original on 2010-09-20. Retrieved 2011-08-25.
- ^ Zhirkov 2001, Первый цензурный устав (1804 г.): иллюзии и практика.
- ^ Zhirkov 2001, Борьба за свободу печати: 1905-1907 гг..
- ^ Творогов, Олег. "Изборник 1073 г." Институт русской литературы (Пушкинский дом) РАН. pushkinskijdom.ru. Archived from the original on 2013-11-10. Retrieved 17 June 2015.
- ^ a b Буланин, Дмитрий. "Пандекты и Тактикон Никона Черногорца". Институт русской литературы (Пушкинский дом) РАН. pushkinskijdom.ru. Archived from the original on 2013-11-10. Retrieved 17 June 2015.
- ^ "Стоглавый собор". Хронос. Всемирная история в интернете. hrono.ru. Archived from the original on 2012-01-25. Retrieved 2011-08-24.
- ^ "Стоглавый собор". krugosvet.ru. Archived from the original on 2011-10-04. Retrieved 2011-08-24.
- ^ "Стоглав". Brockhaus and Efron Encyclopedic Dictionary: In 86 Volumes (82 Volumes and 4 Additional Volumes). St. Petersburg. 1890–1907.
{{cite book}}
: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link) - ^ "Иван Федоров (Москвитин)". Электронные публикации Института русской литературы (Пушкинского дома) РАН. pushkinskijdom.ru. Archived from the original on 2011-05-24. Retrieved 2011-08-28.
- ^ "Федоров, Иван Федорович". Энциклопедия Кругосвет. krugosvet.ru. Archived from the original on 2012-02-22. Retrieved 2011-08-29.: "Зависть и ненависть нас от земли и отечества и от рода нашего изгнали и в иные страны, неведомые доселе."
- ISBN 5-02-031083-2.
- ^ Забелин, Иван. (1850). "Материалы для истории русской иконописи". Временник Императорского Московского общества истории и древностей российских. Vol. 7. pp. 83–4.
{{cite book}}
: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) - ^ "Лубочные картинки". Brockhaus and Efron Encyclopedic Dictionary: In 86 Volumes (82 Volumes and 4 Additional Volumes). St. Petersburg. 1890–1907.
{{cite book}}
: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link) - ^ Богданов А. П. От летописания к исследованию: русские историки последней четверти XVII века. М.: RISC, 1995. С. 215—301.; Панченко А. М. Сильвестр //Словарь книжников и книжности Древней Руси. СПб. 1998. Вып. 3. Ч. 3. С. 354—359.
- ^ Богданов А. П. Русские патриархи (1589—1700): В 2 т. Т. 1. — М. 1999. С. 225—231.
- ^ Alternate spellings: Jan/ Yan Tessing/ Tesing, Jogann Tising, Johanne Thesing.
- ^ a b c Рейфман П. С. "Глава первая. От Первого до второй. "Курносый злодей"". Из истории русской, советской и постсоветской цензуры. reifman.ru. Archived from the original on 2010-09-20. Retrieved 2011-08-25.
- ISBN 9789401191012.
- ^ "Духовный регламент". Brockhaus and Efron Encyclopedic Dictionary: In 86 Volumes (82 Volumes and 4 Additional Volumes). St. Petersburg. 1890–1907.
{{cite book}}
: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link) - ^ "Духовный регламент. Полное собрание законов Российской империи. Собрание I. СПб., 1830. Т. VI. № 3718". pseudology.org. Retrieved 2011-08-31.
- ^ Blum 2009, p. 19.
- ^ a b c Zhirkov 2001, XVIII век: период перехода от духовной к светской цензуре.
- ^ a b "История печати. Том 1-й. IV. Россия". Библиотека Центра экстремальной журналистики. library.cjes.ru. Archived from the original on 2016-02-03. Retrieved 2011-11-14.
- ^ Choldin, Marianna Tax. A Fence Around the Empire : Russian Censorship of Western Ideas Under the Tsars . Durham [N.C: Duke University Press, 1985.
- ^ Рейфман, П.С. Часть первая. Российская цензура. Глава восьмая. «Но в октябре его немножечко того...». Из истории русской, советской и постсоветской цензуры. reifman.ru. Проверено 25 августа 2011. Архивировано из первоисточника 24 января 2012.
- ^ "Белобородова А. Изменения в организации цензуры в Российской империи в 1914 г. (по материалам Курской губернии)". Открытый текст. Электронное периодическое издание. opentextnn.ru. Archived from the original on 2012-04-13. Retrieved 2011-08-25.
- ^ Zhirkov 2001, Цензура и журналистика при «обновленном строе».
- ^ Quoted in Blium, 2011, p. 325.
- ^ Рейфман П. С. "Часть II. Советская и постсоветская цензура. Вместо вступления". Из истории русской, советской и постсоветской цензуры. reifman.ru. Archived from the original on 2010-09-20. Retrieved 2011-08-25.
- ^ Zhirkov 2001, Советская цензура периода комиссародержавия 1917–1919 гг..
Bibliography
- Blum, Arlen (2009). Ot neolita do Glavlita. St. Petersburg: Iskusstvo Rossii. ISBN 978-5-98361-095-8.
- Blum, Arlen (2011). Russkie pisateli o tsenzure i tsenzorakh: Ot Radishcheva do nashikh dnei, 1790–1990. Odessa: Poligraf. ISBN 978-5-91868-003-2.
- Engel'gardt, Nikolai (2002). Ocherk istorii russkoi tsenzury v tsarkoi Rossii. Translated by Galushkina, M. Rudomino.[verification needed]
- Lemke, Mikhail (1904). Epokha tsenzurnykh reform: 1859—1865 godov. St. Petersburg: M. V. Pirozhkov.
- Mikhailov, Vladimir (2003). Rasskazy o kinematografe staroi Moskvy. Materik. ISBN 5-85646-083-9.)
{{cite book}}
: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link - Reifman, Pavel (2001–2003). Iz istorii russkoi, sovetskoi i postsovetskoi tsenzury.
- Sbornik postanovlenii i rasporiazhenii po tsenzure s 1720 po 1862 god. St. Petersburg: Tipografiia Morskogo ministerstva.
- Ruud, Charles A. (2009). Fighting Words: Imperial Censorship and the Russian Press, 1804–1906. Toronto: University of Toronto Press.
- Shirkov, V. P. (1900). Ustav o tsenzure i pechati. St. Petersburg: N. K. Martynov.
- "Ustav o tsenzure i pechati v redaktsii 1906 g."
- Zhirkov, Gennadii (2001). Istoriia tsenzury v Rossii XIX–XX veka. Moscow: Aspekt-Press. ISBN 5-7567-0145-1.