Central Europe
Central Europe is a geographical region of Europe between Eastern, Southern, Western and Northern Europe.[3][4] Central Europe is known for its cultural diversity;[5][6] however, countries in this region also share certain historical and cultural similarities.[7][8]
Whilst the region is variously defined, it often includes Austria, Croatia, Czech Republic, Germany, Hungary, Lithuania, Poland, Slovakia, Slovenia and Switzerland. From the early 16th century[9][10] until the early 18th century,[11] parts of present-day Croatia and Hungary were under Ottoman rule. During the 17th century, the empire also occupied southern parts of present-day Slovakia.[12][13] During the Early Modern period, the territories of Poland and Lithuania were part of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. Meanwhile, the Archduchy of Austria, the Kingdom of Bohemia (Czechia), the Duchy of Carniola (part of present-day Slovenia), the various German Principalities and the Old Swiss Confederacy were within the Holy Roman Empire. By the end of the 18th century, the Habsburg monarchy, a prominent power within the empire, came to reign over the territories of Austria, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Croatia, Czechia, Hungary, Slovakia and Slovenia, alongside parts of Serbia, Germany, Italy, Poland and Switzerland.[14]
The countries that make up Central Europe have historically been, and in some cases continue to be,[15] divided into either Eastern or Western Europe.[16][17] After World War II, Europe was divided by the Iron Curtain[18] into two parts, the capitalist Western Bloc and the communist Eastern Bloc, although Austria, Switzerland and Yugoslavia (encompassing the territories of present-day Croatia, Slovenia and various other Balkans nations) declared neutrality. The Berlin Wall was one of the most visible symbols of this division.[19] Respectively, countries in Central Europe have historical, cultural and geopolitical ties with these wider regions of Europe.[20][21][22][23]
Central Europe began a "strategic awakening" in the late 20th and early 21st century,[24] with initiatives such as Central European Defence Cooperation, the Central European Initiative, Centrope, and the Visegrád Four Group. This awakening was accelerated by writers and other intellectuals, who recognized the societal paralysis of decaying dictatorships and felt compelled to speak up against Soviet oppression.[25]
Historical perspective
Middle Ages and early modern period
In the early Middle Ages, Central Europe had a diverse landscape, with various ethnic groups inhabiting the region. Germanic tribes, among them the Franks, Alemans and Bavarians, were predominantly situated in the west, while Slavic tribes were predominantly in the east.[26] However, the region encompassed a wide spectrum of additional tribes and communities.
From the late 6th century to the early 9th century, the area roughly corresponding to the
The Holy Roman Empire was founded at the turn of the 9th century, following the coronation of Charlemagne by Pope Leo III.[34] At its inception, it incorporated present-day Germany and nearby regions, including parts of what is now Austria, Czechia, Slovenia and Switzerland. Three decades later, Great Moravia, centred in present-day Czechia and Slovakia, became one of the first West Slavic states to be founded in Central Europe. In the late 9th Century, the Hungarian tribes, originating in the Ural Mountains and Western Siberia,[35] settled in the Carpathian Basin and established the Principality of Hungary.[36]
The earliest recorded concept of Europe as a cultural sphere (instead of simply a geographic term) was formed by
Following the Christianization of various Central European countries, elements of cultural unity emerged within the region, specifically
-
Frankish Empire and its tributariesin 814
-
East Francia in 843
-
Possible furthest extent ofSvatopluk I(870–894)
-
Piast Dynastyin 1000
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Kingdom of Hungary in 1190
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Holy Roman Empire in 1600
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Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth and its fiefsin 1619
According to historian Jenő Szűcs, at the end of the first millennium Central Europe became influenced by Western European developments. Szűcs argued that between the 11th and 15th centuries, not only did Christianization influence the cultures within Central Europe, but well-defined social features were also implemented in the region based on Western characteristics. The keyword of Western social development after the turn of the millennium was the spread of Magdeburg rights in some cities and towns of Western Europe. These began to spread in the middle of the 13th century in Central European countries, bringing about self-governments of towns and counties.[42]
In 1335, the
In 1386, the
Between the 15th and early 16th centuries, the territory of modern Croatia served as a significant maritime gateway of Central Europe, with its ports facilitating key trade routes between Central Europe and the Mediterranean.[45][46] The Republic of Ragusa emerged as a prominent hub for cultural exchange during this time.[45] Following the Ottoman and Habsburg wars of the 16th and 17th centuries, the Kingdom of Croatia, under Habsburg rule, began to regain its position as a significant trade route, restoring ports and revitalising commercial activity.
Before World War I
Before 1870, the industrialization that had started to develop in Northwestern and Central Europe and the United States did not extend in any significant way to the rest of the world. Even in Eastern Europe, industrialization lagged far behind. Russia, for example, remained largely rural and agricultural, and its autocratic rulers kept the peasants in serfdom.[48] The concept of Central Europe was already known at the beginning of the 19th century,[49] but it developed further and became an object of intensive interest towards the 20th century. However, the very first concept mixed science, politics, and economy – it was strictly connected with the aspirations of German states to dominate a part of European continent called Mitteleuropa. At the Frankfurt Parliament, which was established in the wake of the March Revolution of 1848, there were multiple competing ideas for the integration of German-speaking areas, including the mitteleuropäische Lösung (Central European Solution) propagated by Austria, which sought to merge the smaller German-speaking states with the multi-ethnic Habsburg Empire, but was opposed by Prussia and others. An imperialistic idea of Mitteleuropa also became popular in the German Empire established in 1871, which experienced intensive economic growth. The term was used when the Union of German Railway Administrations established the Mitteleuropäische Eisenbahn-Zeit (Central European Railway Time) time zone, which was applied by the railways from 1 June 1891 and was later widely adopted in civilian life, thus the time zone name shortened to the present-day Central European Time.[50]
The German term denoting Central Europe was so fashionable that other languages started referring to it when indicating territories from Rhine to Vistula, or even Dnieper, and from the Baltic Sea to the Balkans.[51] An example of this vision of Central Europe may be seen in Joseph Partsch's book of 1903.[52]
On 21 January 1904, Mitteleuropäischer Wirtschaftsverein (Central European Economic Association) was established in Berlin with economic integration of Germany and Austria (with eventual extension to Switzerland, Belgium and the Netherlands) as its main aim. Another time, the term Central Europe became connected to the German plans of political, economic, and cultural domination. The "bible" of the concept was Friedrich Naumann's book Mitteleuropa[53] in which he called for an economic federation to be established after World War I. Naumann's idea was that the federation would have at its centre in Germany and the Habsburg empire would incorporate all European nations outside the Triple Entente.[citation needed] The concept failed after the German defeat in World War I. The revival of the idea may be observed during the Hitler era.
Interwar period
The
The interwar period brought new elements to the concept of Central Europe. Before World War I, it embraced mainly German-speaking states, with non-German speaking territories being an area of intended German penetration and domination – German leadership was to be the 'natural' result of economic dominance.[49] Post-war, the Eastern part of Central Europe was placed at the centre of the concept. At that time the scientists took an interest in the idea: the International Historical Congress in Brussels in 1923 was committed to Central Europe, and the 1933 Congress continued the discussions.[56]
According to Emmanuel de Martonne, in 1927 the Central European countries included: Austria, Czechoslovakia, Germany, Hungary, Poland, Romania and Switzerland. The author uses both Human and Physical Geographical features to define Central Europe, but he doesn't take into account the legal development or the social, cultural, economic, and infrastructural developments in these countries.[57]
The avant-garde movements of Central Europe contributed to the evolution of modernism, reaching its peak throughout the continent during the 1920s. The Sourcebook of Central European avantgards (Los Angeles County Museum of Art) contains primary documents of the avant-gardes in the territories of Austria, Germany, Poland, Czechoslovakia, Hungary, Romania and Yugoslavia from 1910 to 1930.[54]
Mitteleuropa
With the
In Germany the connotation was also sometimes linked to the pre-war German provinces east of the
The term "Mitteleuropa" conjures up negative historical associations among some elderly people, although the Germans have not played an exclusively negative role in the region.[62] Most Central European Jews embraced the enlightened German humanistic culture of the 19th century.[63] Jews of turn of the 20th century Central Europe became representatives of what many consider to be Central European culture at its best, though the Nazi conceptualisation of "Mitteleuropa" sought to destroy this culture.[64] The term "Mitteleuropa" is widely used in German education and media without negative meaning, especially since the end of communism. Many people from the new states of Germany do not identify themselves as being part of Western Europe and therefore prefer the term "Mitteleuropa".[citation needed]
Central Europe during World War II
During World War II, Central Europe was largely occupied by Nazi Germany. Many areas were a battle area and were devastated. The mass murder of the Jews depopulated many of their centuries-old settlement areas or settled other people there and their culture was wiped out. Both Adolf Hitler and Joseph Stalin diametrically opposed the centuries-old Habsburg principles of "live and let live" with regard to ethnic groups, peoples, minorities, religions, cultures and languages and tried to assert their own ideologies and power interests in Central Europe.[65] There were various Allied plans for state order in Central Europe for post-war. While Stalin tried to get as many states under his control as possible, Winston Churchill preferred a Central European Danube Confederation to counter these countries against Germany and Russia. There were also plans to add Bavaria and Württemberg to an enlarged Austria.[66] There were also various resistance movements around Otto von Habsburg that pursued this goal. The group around the Austrian priest Heinrich Maier also planned in this direction, which also successfully helped the Allies to wage war by, among other things, forwarding production sites and plans for V-2 rockets, Tiger tanks and aircraft to the USA.[67][68] Otto von Habsburg tried to relieve Austria, Czechoslovakia, Hungary and northern Yugoslavia (particularly the territories of present-day Croatia and Slovenia) from Nazi German, and Soviet, influence and control.[69][70] There were various considerations to prevent German and Soviet power in Europe after the war. Churchill's idea of reaching the area around Vienna before the Russians via an operation from the Adriatic had not been approved by the Western Allied chiefs of staff.[71] As a result of the military situation at the end of the war, Stalin's plans prevailed and much of Central Europe came under Russian control.[72][73]
Central Europe behind the Iron Curtain
Following World War II, parts of Central Europe became part of the Eastern Bloc. The boundary between the two blocks was called the Iron Curtain.
The post-World War II period brought blocking of research on Central Europe in the
According to Karl A. Sinnhuber (Central Europe: Mitteleuropa: Europe Centrale: An Analysis of a Geographical Term), Sweden and Yugoslavia preserved their political sovereignty to a certain degree, being left out of any military alliances in Europe.
The opening of the Iron Curtain between Austria and Hungary at the Pan-European Picnic on 19 August 1989 then set in motion a peaceful chain reaction, at the end of which there was no longer an East Germany and the Eastern Bloc had disintegrated.[77][78] It was the largest escape movement from East Germany since the Berlin Wall was built in 1961. After the picnic, which was based on an idea by Otto von Habsburg to test the reaction of the USSR and Mikhail Gorbachev to an opening of the border, tens of thousands of media-informed East Germans set off for Hungary.[79] The leadership of the GDR in East Berlin did not dare to completely block the borders of their own country and the USSR did not respond at all. This broke the bracket of the Eastern Bloc and Central Europe subsequently became free from communism.[80][81][82]
Roles
According to American professor Ronald Tiersky, the 1991 summit held in Visegrád attended by the Polish, Hungarian and Czechoslovak presidents was hailed at the time as a major breakthrough in Central European cooperation, but the Visegrád Group became a vehicle for coordinating Central Europe's road to the European Union, while development of closer ties within the region languished.[83]
American professor Peter J. Katzenstein described Central Europe as a way station in a Europeanization process that marks the transformation process of the Visegrád Group countries in different, though comparable ways.[84] According to him, in Germany's contemporary public discourse "Central European identity" refers to the civilizational divide between Catholicism and Eastern Orthodoxy.[84] He says there is no precise, uncontestable way to decide whether Lithuania, Latvia, Estonia, Serbia, Croatia, Slovenia, Romania, or Bulgaria are parts of Central Europe.[85]
Definitions
The issue of how to name and define the Central European area is subject to debates. Very often, the definition depends on the nationality and historical perspective of its author. The concept of "Central Europe" appeared in the 19th century. It was understood as a contact zone between the Southern and Northern areas, and later the Eastern and Western areas, of Europe. Thinkers portrayed "Central Europe" either as a separate region, or a buffer zone between these regions.
In the early nineteenth century, the terms "Middle" or "Central" Europe (known as "Mitteleuropa" in German and "Europe centrale" in French) were introduced in geographical scholarship in both German and French languages. At first, these terms were linked to the regions spanning from the Pyrenees to the Danube, which, according to German authors, could be united under German authority. However, after the Franco-Prussian war of 1870, the French began to exclude France from this area, and later the Germans also adopted this perspective by the end of World War I.[86]
The concept of "Central" or "Middle Europe", understood as a region with German influence, lost a significant part of its popularity after WWI and was completely dismissed after WWII. Two defeats of Germany in the world wars, combined with the division of Germany, an almost complete disappearance of German-speaking communities in these countries, and the Communist-led isolation of Czechoslovakia, Hungary, Lithuania, Poland and Yugoslavia from the Western world, turned the concept of "Central/Middle Europe" into an anachronism. On the other side, the non-German areas of Central Europe were almost universally regarded as "Eastern European" primarily associated with the Soviet sphere of influence in the late 1940s–1980s.
For the most part, this geographical framework lost its attraction after the end of the Cold War. A number of Post-Communist countries rather re-branded themselves in the 1990s as "Central European.", while avoiding the stained wording of "Middle Europe," which they associated with German influence in the region. This reinvented concept of "Central Europe" excluded Germany, Austria and Switzerland, reducing its coverage chiefly to Poland, Czechia, Slovakia, Hungary, Lithuania and Yugoslavia.[86]
Academic
The main proposed regional definitions, gathered by Polish historian Jerzy Kłoczowski, include:[87]
- West-Central and East-Central Europe – this conception, presented in 1950,[88] distinguishes two regions in Central Europe: German West-Centre, with imperial tradition of the Reich, and the East-Centre covered by variety of nations from Finland to Greece, placed between great empires of Scandinavia, Germany, Italy and the Soviet Union.
- Central Europe as the area of cultural heritage of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth – Ukrainian, Belarusian and Lithuanian historians, in cooperation (since 1990) with Polish historians, insist on the importance of the concept.
- Central Europe as a region connected to the Crown of Bohemia. Central Europe understood in this way borders on Russia and South-Eastern Europe, but the exact frontier of the region is difficult to determine.
- Central Europe as the area of the former Habsburg Empire[citation needed] – a concept which is popular in regions along the river Danube[citation needed]: Austria, the Czech Republic and Slovakia, Slovenia, large parts of Bosnia,[89] Croatia and Romania[dubious ]. Also, smaller parts of Poland, Serbia[dubious ][citation needed] and Ukraine[dubious ].
- A concept underlining the links connecting Slavic Orthodox population as one entity – this position is taken by the Russian historiography.[citation needed][dubious].
- A concept putting the accent on links with the West[South-Eastern states, which prefer the enlarged concept of the "East Centre" expressing their links with Western culture[dubious ].[citation needed]
Former University of Vienna professor Lonnie R. Johnson points out criteria to distinguish Central Europe from Western, Northern, Eastern and Southern Europe:[90]
- One criterion for defining Central Europe is the frontiers of medieval empires and kingdoms that largely correspond to the religious frontiers between the Southeastern and Eastern Europe they were brought into the fold of the Eastern Orthodox Church.[91]
- Multinational empires were a characteristic of Central Europe.[91] Hungary and Poland, small and medium-size states today, were empires during their early histories.[91] The historical Kingdom of Hungary was until 1918 three times larger than present-day Hungary,[91] while Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth was the largest state in Europe in the 16th century.[91] Both these kingdoms housed a wide variety of different peoples.[91]
He also thinks that Central Europe is a dynamic historical concept, not a static spatial one. For example, a fair share of Belarus and western Ukraine are in Eastern Europe today, but 240 years ago they were in the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth.[91]
Johnson's study on Central Europe received acclaim and positive reviews in the scientific community.[92][93] However, according to Romanian researcher Maria Bucur this very ambitious project suffers from the weaknesses imposed by its scope (almost 1600 years of history).[94]
Encyclopedias, gazetteers, dictionaries
The German Encyclopaedia Meyers Grosses Taschenlexikon (Meyers Big Pocket Encyclopedia), 1999, defines Central Europe as the central part of Europe with no precise borders to the East and West. The term is mostly used to denominate the territory between the
. Usually the countries considered to be Central European are Austria, Croatia, Czechia, Germany, Hungary, Liechtenstein, Lithuania, Poland, Slovakia, Slovenia and Switzerland.According to Meyers Enzyklopädisches Lexikon,[98] Central Europe is a part of Europe composed of Austria, Belgium, the Czech Republic, Slovakia, Germany, Hungary, Luxembourg, Netherlands, Poland, Romania and Switzerland, and northern marginal regions of Italy and Yugoslavia (northern states – Croatia and Slovenia), as well as northeastern France.
The German Ständige Ausschuss für geographische Namen (Standing Committee on Geographical Names), which develops and recommends rules for the uniform use of geographical names, proposes two sets of boundaries. The first follows international borders of current countries. The second subdivides and includes some countries based on cultural criteria. In comparison to some other definitions, it is broader, including Luxembourg, Estonia, Latvia, and in the second sense, parts of Russia, Belarus, Ukraine, Romania, Serbia, Italy, and France.[2]
Geographical
There is no general agreement either on what geographic area constitutes Central Europe, nor on how to further subdivide it geographically.[99]
At times, the term "Central Europe" denotes a geographic definition as the Danube region in the heart of the continent, including the language and culture areas which are today included in the states of Bulgaria, Croatia, the Czech Republic, Hungary, Moldova, Poland, Romania, Serbia, Slovakia, Slovenia and usually also Austria and Germany.[100]
Governmental and standards organisations
The terminology EU11 countries refer the Central, Eastern and Baltic European member states which accessed in 2004 and after: in 2004 Czech Republic, Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, Hungary, Poland, Slovenia, and Slovakia; in 2007 Bulgaria, Romania; and in 2013 Croatia.[101]
Map gallery
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Central Europe according to Peter J. Katzenstein (1997):The Visegrád Group countries are referred to as Central Europe in the book.[84]Countries for which there is no precise, uncontestable way to decide whether they are parts of Central Europe or not[85]
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According to The Economist and Ronald Tiersky, a strict definition of Central Europe means the Visegrád Group.[83][102]
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Map of Central Europe, according to Lonnie R. Johnson (2011):[103]Countries considered to be Central European only in the broader sense of the term
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Central European countries inEncarta Encyclopedia (2009):[104]Central European countriesSlovenia in "south central Europe"
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The Central European Countries according to Meyers Grosses Taschenlexikon (1999):Countries usually considered Central EuropeanCentral European countries in the broader sense of the termCountries occasionally considered to be Central European
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Middle Europe (Brockhaus Enzyklopädie, 1998)
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Central Europe according to Swansea University professors Robert Bideleux and Ian Jeffries (1998)[105]
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Central Europe, as defined by E. Schenk (1950)[106]
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Central Europe, according to Alice F. A. Mutton in Central Europe. A Regional and Human Geography (1961)
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Central Europe according to Meyers Enzyklopaedisches Lexikon (1980)
States
The choice of states that make up Central Europe is an ongoing source of controversy.[107] Although views on which countries belong to Central Europe are vastly varied, according to many sources (see section Definitions) the region includes some or all of the states listed in the sections below:
- Austria
- Croatia[108][90][109][110][111]
- Czech Republic
- Germany
- Hungary
- Lithuania[112][113][114][115][116]
- Poland
- Slovakia
- Slovenia
- Switzerland
Depending on the context, Central European countries are sometimes not seen as a specific group, but sorted as either Eastern or Western European countries.[117][118][119] In this case Austria, Germany and Switzerland are often placed in Western Europe, while Croatia, the Czech Republic, Hungary, Lithuania, Poland, Slovakia and Slovenia are placed in Eastern Europe.[120][119][121][122]
Croatia is alternatively placed in Southeastern Europe.[123][124][125] Additionally, Hungary[123][125][126][127][128][129] and Slovenia[123][125][130][128][129] are sometimes included in the region.
Lithuania is alternatively placed in Northeastern Europe.[131]
Other countries and regions
Some sources also add regions of neighbouring countries for historical reasons, or based on geographical and/or cultural reasons:
- Bosnia and Herzegovina (as a former part of the Habsburg monarchy, placed in Southern or Southeast Europe)[132][133]
- Estonia (considered to have been part of 'Mitteleuropa', alternatively placed in Eastern, Northeastern or Northern Europe)
- Italy (South Tyrol, Trentino, Trieste and Gorizia, Friuli, Lombardy, and Veneto or all of Northern Italy)[134][failed verification]
- Latvia (considered to have been part of 'Mitteleuropa')
- Romania (Transylvania, along with Banat, Crișana, Maramureș,[135] Bukovina[136][137][138][139] and Muntenia along with Oltenia[140])
- Russia (Kaliningrad Oblast)
- Serbia (primarily Vojvodina and Northern Belgrade, alternatively placed in Southeast Europe)[141][142][143][144][145][146]
- Ukraine (Transcarpathia,[147] Galicia and Northern Bukovina[136])
Geography
Geography defines Central Europe's natural borders with the neighbouring regions to the north across the
Southwards, the
As the southeastern division of the
The Central European
Demography
Central Europe is one of the continent's most populous regions. It includes countries of varied sizes, ranging from tiny Liechtenstein to Germany, the second largest European country by population. Demographic figures for countries entirely located within notion of Central Europe ("the core countries") number around 165 million people, out of which around 82 million are residents of Germany.[152] Other populations include: Poland with around 38.5 million residents,[153] Czech Republic at 10.5 million,[154] Hungary at 10 million,[155] Austria with 8.8 million, Switzerland with 8.5 million,[156] Slovakia at 5.4 million,[157] Slovenia with 2.1 million[158] and Liechtenstein at a bit less than 40,000.[159]
If the countries which are sometimes also included in Central Europe were counted in, partially or in whole – Croatia (4.3 million),[160] Romania (20 million), Lithuania (2.9 million), Latvia (2 million), Estonia (1.3 million), Serbia (7.1 million)[161] – it would contribute to the rise of between 25 and 35 million, depending on whether regional or integral approach was used.[162] If smaller, western and eastern historical parts of Central Europe would be included in the demographic corpus, further 20 million people of different nationalities would also be added in the overall count, it would surpass the 200 million people figure.
Economy
Currencies
Currently, the members of the Eurozone include Austria, Croatia, Germany, Luxembourg, Slovakia, and Slovenia. The Czech Republic, Hungary and Poland use their own currencies (koruna, forint, Polish złoty, respectively), but are obliged to adopt the Euro. Switzerland uses its own currency (Swiss franc), as does Serbia (dinar) and Romania (Romanian leu).
Human Development Index
Very High | Low |
High | Data unavailable |
Medium |
In 2018, Switzerland topped the HDI list among Central European countries, also ranking No. 2 in the world. Serbia rounded out the list at No. 11 (67 world).
Globalisation
The
Prosperity Index
Legatum Prosperity Index demonstrates an average and high level of prosperity in Central Europe (2018 data).[164] Switzerland topped the index (#4 world).
Corruption
90–100 | 60–69 | 30–39 | 0–9 |
80–89 | 50–59 | 20–29 | No information |
70–79 | 40–49 | 10–19 |
Most countries in Central Europe tend to score above the average in the Corruption Perceptions Index (2018 data),[165] led by Switzerland, Germany, and Austria.
Rail
Central Europe contains the continent's earliest railway systems, whose greatest expansion was recorded in Austro-Hungarian and German territories between 1860-1870s.[166] By the mid-19th century Berlin, Vienna, and Buda/Pest were focal points for network lines connecting industrial areas of Saxony, Silesia, Bohemia, Moravia and Lower Austria with the Baltic (Kiel, Szczecin) and Adriatic (Rijeka, Trieste).[167] By 1913, the combined length of the railway tracks of the Austrian Empire and Kingdom of Hungary reached 43,280 kilometres (26,890 miles).
Rail infrastructure in Central Europe remains the densest in the world. Railway density, with total length of lines operated (km) per 1,000 km2, is the highest in the Czech Republic (198.6), Poland (121.0), Slovenia (108.0), Germany (105.5), Hungary (98.7), Serbia (49.2), Slovakia (73.9) and Croatia (72.5).[168][169][170][171]
River transport and canals
Before the first railroads appeared in the 1840s, river transport constituted the main means of communication and trade. The most significant achievement in this regard was the facilitation of navigability on Danube from the Black sea to Ulm in the 19th century.
The economies of Austria, Croatia, the Czech Republic, Germany, Hungary, Poland, Slovakia, Slovenia and Switzerland tend to demonstrate high complexity. Industrialisation reached Central Europe relatively early: the Czech lands by 1797,[172]
The industrialization of the cities of Romania[173] and Serbia and Serbia[174] started in the interwar period, and did not make significant progress until the post ww2 era.
Agriculture
Central European countries are some of the most significant food producers in the world. Germany is the world's largest hops producer with 34.27% share in 2010,[175] third producer of rye and barley, 5th rapeseed producer, sixth largest milk producer, and fifth largest potato producer. Poland is the world's largest triticale producer, second largest producer of raspberries, currants, third largest of rye, the fifth apple and buckwheat producer, and seventh largest producer of potatoes. Czech Republic is world's fourth largest hops producer and 8th producer of triticale. Hungary is world's fifth hops and seventh largest triticale producer. Serbia is world's second largest producer of plums and second largest of raspberries.[176][177] Slovenia is world's sixth hops producer.
Business
Central European business has a regional organisation, Central European Business Association (CEBA), founded in 1996 in New York as a non-profit organization dedicated to promoting business opportunities within Central Europe and supporting the advancement of professionals in America with a Central European background.[178]
Tourism
Central European countries, especially Austria, Croatia, Germany and Switzerland are some of the most competitive tourism destinations.[179]
Education
Languages
Education performance
Student performance has varied across Central Europe, according to the Programme for International Student Assessment. In the 2012 study, countries scored medium, below or over the average scores in three fields studied.[180]
Higher education
Universities
The first university established east of France and north of the Alps was in Prague in 1348 by Charles IV, Holy Roman Emperor. The Charles University was modeled upon the University of Paris and initially included the faculty of law, medicine, philosophy, and theology.[181]
Central European University
In 1991,
Culture and society
Research
Research centres of Central European literature include Harvard University (Cambridge, MA),[190] Purdue University,[191] and Central European Studies Programme (CESP), Masaryk University, Brno, Czech Republic.[192]
Architecture
Religion
Central European countries are mostly
Central Europe has been the center of the
Historically, people in Bohemia in today's Czech Republic were one of the very first Protestants in Europe. As a result of the Thirty Years' War following the Bohemian Revolt, many Czechs were either killed, executed (see for Old Town Square execution), forcibly turned into Roman Catholics, or emigrated to Scandinavia and the Low Countries. In the aftermath of the Thirty Years' War, the number of inhabitants in the Kingdom of Bohemia decreased from three million to only 800,000 due to multiple factors, including devastating ongoing battles such as the significant Battle of White Mountain and the Battle of Prague (1648). However, in recent years, most Czechs report as overwhelmingly non-religious, with some describing themselves as Catholic (10.3%).
Before the
Certain countries in Central Europe, particularly the Czech Republic, Germany and Switzerland have sizeable
Cuisine
Central European cuisine has evolved over centuries due to social and political change and is generally diverse. However, the national cuisines of western Central Europe share notable similarities, as do the cuisines of eastern Central Europe. Sausages and cheeses are popular in most of Central Europe, with the earliest evidence of cheesemaking in the archaeological record dates back to 5,500 BCE (Kuyavia region, Poland).[200] However, they are not a prominent feature of Hungarian and Slovak cuisine. Other popular food items in Central Europe include soups, stews, pickled and fermented vegetables. Schnitzel, goulash and cabbage rolls are popular in the region.
Another common feature among Central European cuisines, particularly Austrian, Croatian, Lithuanian, Slovenian and Swiss cuisine, is the use of wild ingredients in traditional dishes, spanning from wild herbs to mushrooms and berries. Beer consumption is also prominent in parts of Central Europe, where the Czech Republic has the highest
Human rights
Generally, the countries in the region have been progressive on the issue of human rights: death penalty is illegal in all of them, corporal punishment is outlawed in most of them and people of both genders can vote in elections. However, Central European countries are divided on the subject of same-sex marriage and abortion. Austria, the Czech Republic, Germany, and Poland also have a history of participation in the CIA's extraordinary rendition and detention program, according to the Open Society Foundations.[201][202]
Literature
Regional writing tradition revolves around the turbulent history of the region, as well as its cultural diversity.[203][204] Its existence is sometimes challenged.[205] Specific courses on Central European literature are taught at Stanford University,[206] Harvard University[207] and Jagiellonian University[208] as well as cultural magazines dedicated to regional literature.[209] Angelus Central European Literature Award is an award worth 150,000.00 PLN (about $50,000 or £30,000) for writers originating from the region.[210] Likewise, the Vilenica International Literary Prize is awarded to a Central European author for "outstanding achievements in the field of literature and essay writing".[211]
Media
Sport
There is a number of Central European Sport events and leagues. They include:
- Central European Tour Miskolc GP(Hungary)*
- Central European Tour Budapest GP (Hungary)
- 2008 Central Europe Rally (Romania and Hungary)*
- 2023 Central Europe Rally(Germany, Austria and Czech Republic)
- Central European Football League (Austria, Croatia, Hungary, Serbia, Slovakia, Slovenia and Turkey)
- Central European International Cup (Austria, Czechoslovakia, Hungary, Italy, Poland, Switzerland and Yugoslavia; 1927–1960)
- Central Europe Throwdown*[212]
Football is one of the most popular sports. Countries of Central Europe hosted several major competitions. Germany hosted two FIFA World Cups (1974 and 2006) and the UEFA Euro 1988. Yugoslavia hosted the UEFA Euro 1976 before the competition expanded to 8 teams. Recently, the 2008 and 2012 UEFA European Championships were held in Austria & Switzerland and Poland & Ukraine respectively. The UEFA Euro 2024 will be hosted by Germany.
Politics
Organisations
Central Europe is a birthplace of regional political organisations:
- Visegrád Group
- Central European Defence Cooperation
- Three Seas Initiative
- Centrope
- Central European Initiative
- Middleeuropean Initiative
- Central European Free Trade Agreement
-
Central European Initiative
-
CEFTA founding states
-
CEFTA members in 2003, before joining the EU
-
CurrentCEFTAmembers
Democracy Index
Central Europe is a home to some of world's oldest democracies. However, most of them have been impacted by
Global Peace Index
In spite of its turbulent history, Central Europe is currently one of world's safest regions. Most Central European countries are in top 20%.[214]
Central European Time
The time zone is a standard time which is 1 hour ahead of Coordinated Universal Time. Countries using CET include:
- Albania
- Andorra
- Austria
- Belgium
- Bosnia and Herzegovina
- Croatia
- Czech Republic
- Denmark
- France
- Germany
- Hungary
- Italy
- Luxembourg
- Monaco
- Montenegro
- Netherlands
- North Macedonia
- Norway
- Poland
- San Marino
- Slovakia
- Slovenia
- Serbia
- Sweden
- Switzerland
- Vatican City
In popular culture
Central Europe is mentioned in the 35th episode of Lovejoy, entitled "The Prague Sun", filmed in 1992. While walking over the well-regarded and renowned Charles Bridge in Prague, the main character, Lovejoy, says: "I've never been to Prague before. Well, it is one of the great unspoiled cities in Central Europe. Notice: I said: 'Central', not 'Eastern'! The Czechs are a bit funny about that, they think of Eastern Europeans as turnip heads."[215]
Wes Anderson's Oscar-winning film The Grand Budapest Hotel depicts a fictional grand hotel located somewhere in Central Europe which is in actuality modeled on the Grandhotel Pupp in Karlovy Vary in the Czech Republic. The film is a celebration of the 1920s and 1930s Central Europe with its artistic splendor and societal sensibilities.[216][217]
See also
References
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General and cited references
- Ádám, Magda (2003). The Versailles System and Central Europe Variorum Collected Studies. Ashgate. ISBN 0-86078-905-5.
- Ádám, Magda (1993). The Little Entente and Europe(1920–1929). Akadémiai Kiadó. ISBN 963-05-6420-3.
- Ágh, Attila (1998). The politics of Central Europe. Sage. ISBN 0-7619-5032-X.
- Aleksov, Bojan; Piahanau, Aliaksandr (2020). Wars and Betweenness: Big Powers and Middle Europe, 1918-1945. Central European University Press. ISBN 978-963-386-336-7.
- Hayes, Bascom Barry (1994). Bismarck and Mitteleuropa. ISBN 978-0-8386-3512-4.
- Evans, Robert J. W. (2006). "Central Europe: The History of An Idea". Austria, Hungary, and the Habsburgs: Central Europe c. 1683-1867. Oxford. pp. 293–304. OCLC 70258980.
- Johnson, Lonnie R. (1996). Central Europe: enemies, neighbors, friends. ISBN 978-0-19-510071-6.
- ISBN 978-1-57181-124-0.
- OCLC 150672781.
- O. Benson, Forgacs (2002). Between Worlds. A Sourcebook of Central European Avant-Gardes, 1910–1930. MIT Press. ISBN 978-0-262-02530-0.
- ISBN 978-0-7425-2805-5.
- Tötösy de Zepetnek, Steven; Vasvári, Louise Olga (2011). Comparative Hungarian Cultural Studies. Comparative cultural studies. West Lafayette, Indiana: Purdue University Press. OCLC 1088215162. Retrieved 24 November 2014.
- Shared Pasts in Central and Southeast Europe, 17th–21st Centuries. Eds. G. Demeter, P. Peykovska. 2015
Further reading
- Ágh, Attila. Declining Democracy in East-Central Europe: The Divide in the EU and Emerging Hard Populism (Edward Elgar Publishing, 2019).
- Baldersheim, Harald, ed. Local democracy and the processes of transformation in East-Central Europe (Routledge, 2019).
- Brophy, James M (September 2017). "Bookshops, Forbidden Print and Urban Political Culture in Central Europe, 1800–1850*". German History. 35 (3): 403–430. .
- Case, Holly (December 2013). "The Strange Politics of Federative Ideas in East-Central Europe". The Journal of Modern History. 85 (4): 833–866. S2CID 143630398.
- Centre of Central European Studies, Agrarianism in Central and Eastern Europe in the 19th and 20th Centuries (2013) online review.
- Donert, Celia; Greble, Emily; Wardhaugh, Jessica (August 2017). "New Scholarship on Central and Eastern Europe". Contemporary European History. 26 (3): 507. S2CID 164973705.
- Gardner, Hall, ed. Central and South-central Europe in Transition (Praeger, 2000)
- Halecki, Oscar. "BORDERLANDS OF WESTERN CIVILIZATION A History of East Central Europe" (PDF). Oscar Halecki. Archived from the original(PDF) on 30 October 2010. Retrieved 8 August 2010.
- Kenney, Padraic (March 1999). "What is the History of 1989? New Scholarship from East-central Europe". East European Politics and Societies: And Cultures. 13 (2): 419–431. S2CID 144018480.
- Lederer, David. Early Modern Central European History (2011) online review by Linnéa Rowlatt
- Margreiter, Klaus (September 2019). "The Notion of Nobility and the Impact of Ennoblement on Early Modern Central Europe". Central European History. 52 (3): 382–401. ProQuest 2338493814.
- Tieanu, Alexandra (2013). "Shared Culture, Peace and Bridging: Western Influences on the Dissident Idea of Central Europe in the Communist States during the 1980s". Valahian Journal of Historical Studies (20): 215–232.
- Vachudova, Milada Anna (October 2019). "From Competition to Polarization in Central Europe: How Populists Change Party Systems and the European Union". Polity. 51 (4): 689–706. S2CID 204419373.
- Anna Vachudova, Milada (2 July 2020). "Ethnopopulism and democratic backsliding in Central Europe". East European Politics. 36 (3): 318–340. S2CID 221178529.
- Zimmerman, Andrew (16 September 2016). "Race against Revolution in Central and Eastern Europe". East Central Europe. 43 (1–2): 14–40. .
- 'Mapping Central Europe' in hidden europe, 5, pp. 14–15 (November 2005)
External links
- Journal of East Central Europe
- Central European Political Science Association's journal "Politics in Central Europe"
- CEU Political Science Journal (PSJ)
- Central European Journal of International and Security Studies
- Central European Political Studies Review
- The Centrope region
- Maps of Europe and European countries
- CENTRAL EUROPE 2020 Archived 15 October 2015 at the Wayback Machine
- Central Europe Economy
- UNHCR Office for Central Europe