Chachani

Coordinates: 16°11′S 71°31′W / 16.183°S 71.517°W / -16.183; -71.517
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Chachani
Huascaran
Coordinates16°11′S 71°31′W / 16.183°S 71.517°W / -16.183; -71.517[1]
Geography
Geology
Mountain typeVolcanic complex
Last eruptionUnknown

Chachani is a

Central Volcanic Zone of the Andes, it is 6,057 metres (19,872 ft) above sea level. It consists of several lava domes and individual volcanoes such as Nocarane, along with lava shields such as the Airport Domes. Underneath Chachani lies a caldera
.

During the Pliocene and early Pleistocene, the volcanic group produced large ignimbrites such as the La Joya, Arequipa Airport and Yura Tuff ignimbrites; afterwards the volcanic group proper grew in the caldera until about 56,500 years ago. There have not been any eruptions during historical time, but the volcano is considered to be only dormant and due to its closeness to the city of Arequipa is considered high risk.

Name

The name means "brave" in Aymara[3] or "mountain of man"/"mountain of male";[4] alternative spellings "Cacheni" and "Charchani" are also known.[5]

Geography and geomorphology

The volcano lies in the

El Misti volcanoes.[8] The road from Arequipa to Chivay runs along the southeastern foot of Chachani,[9] and a dirt road reaches to an elevation of 5,000 metres (16,000 ft). It is considered to be one of the most easily climbed mountains between 6,000 - 7,000 m high, although acclimatization and good physical health are required to ascend it.[3] In the late 19th century, the good sight from Chachani was remarked upon.[10] Politically, it lies in the Cayma, Yura and Cerro Colorado districts.[11]

Volcanoes in the southern part of Peru include from north to south

Central Volcanic Zone of the Andes, one of three separate volcanic belts in that mountain chain;[15] the Central Volcanic Zone contains 44 named stratovolcanoes.[16]

Chachani is an about 2 kilometres (1.2 mi)[a][b] high and 17 kilometres (11 mi) wide[12] complex[c] of lava domes, stratovolcanoes[6] and volcanic cones;[1] the highest summit is 6,057 metres (19,872 ft) high, making Chachani the 84th highest peak in the Andes.[21] The Chachani complex has an arcuate shape[22] encompassing both the main Chachani volcano and the[23] 5,784 metres (18,976 ft) high[7] Nocarane[24][d] to the north of Chachani,[7] while the 5,484 metres (17,992 ft) high[3] La Horqueta together with El Rodado to its west and Chachani proper to its east forms an east–west trending ridge.[20] La Horqueta has a young appearance and resembles an ash cone[22] with a crater.[26] Additional peaks are the northerly 5,852 metres (19,199 ft) high los Ángeles and the southeasterly 5,820 metres (19,090 ft) high Trigo.[3] In total, Chachani is made up of more than 12 edifices.[27]

Chachani volcanic complex in Peru. Standing at over 6000 m, Chachani is the tallest of the mountains near the Peruvian city of Arequipa. 2017 false-color satellite image.

The Colorado

El Misti volcano later arose on the margin of the Chachani caldera, where it intersects the border of the Altiplano.[33]

The volcanic complex is formed mainly by

Glacial erosion and landslides have affected the volcanic complex,[28] forming cirques and U-shaped valleys and removing much of the original shape of the individual volcanoes.[26] Some moraines have been overrun by lava flows.[22]

Chachani drains into the

El Misti.[35] The Rio Sumbay, one of its tributaries, runs along the eastern side of Chachani.[36] The Rio Yura flows southward along the western side of Chachani, and upon reaching the then westward-flowing Rio Chili becomes the Rio Vitor, which eventually discharges into the Pacific Ocean together with the Rio Siguas.[37]

Glaciation

The volcano underwent five stages of

snowfield.[39] In general, glaciers in the tropical Andes have been shrinking after the end of the Little Ice Age, and especially after the 1970s.[6]

periglacial phenomena such as needle ice are also encountered on the volcanic complex.[7]

  • Chachani, looking eastward
    Chachani, looking eastward
  • Summit area
    Summit area
  • Chachani viewed from El Misti
    Chachani viewed from El Misti

Geology

Southern Volcanic Zone which coincide with segments where the downgoing Nazca plate falls steeply into the mantle.[15]

Volcanic activity in the Chachani region appears to have begun during the Cretaceous-Paleocene in the form of the "Toquepala" volcanics.[37] The oldest volcanic rocks of the Western Cordillera are known under the name "Tacaza", and underwent erosion and folding before the next phase which is known as "Sillapaca".[41] Finally, during the Miocene-Quaternary the Sencca Formation and the "Barroso" volcanics developed;[37] Chachani is classified as part of the Barroso volcanics[42][20] although the oldest volcanism might belong to the "Sillapaca" unit.[26]

The terrain of the volcano is formed by volcanic rocks of Eocene to recent age, which overlie a Precambrian basement[35] and include widespread Neogene-Quaternary ignimbrites.[37] Chachani straddles the margin between the higher-elevation Altiplano and the Arequipa basin at lower altitude.[33]

The younger

normal faults that trend northwest–southeast and has been active during the Holocene.[44]

Chachani has erupted

calc-alkaline suite[28] with unusual adakite characteristics; adakites are magmas that form when the downgoing plate in a subduction setting melts.[45] Phenocrysts include augite, biotite, hornblende and hypersthene;[46] the rhyolites of the Arequipa ignimbrites additionally contain ilmenite, magnetite, plagioclase, quartz and sanidine.[47] The composition of the volcanic rocks has varied over the lifespan of Chachani, sometimes rocks of basaltic andesite composition were erupted as well while the younger volcanoes are usually more homogeneous;[31] this was paralleled by a decrease in the eruption rate.[27]

Climate and vegetation

Under the influence of the cold

arid climate with less than 100 millimetres (3.9 in) annual precipitation in Arequipa.[48] The mountain is occasionally covered in snow.[49] The zero degree elevation at Chachani lies at about 5,000 metres (16,000 ft). The diurnal temperature range is large and can reach 20 °C (36 °F),[1] while ground temperatures are much more stable and higher than air temperatures.[50] A meteorological observatory installed by the Harvard College Observatory[51] was active on the mountain in the latest 19th century.[52]

From 3,500 to 3,900 metres (11,500 to 12,800 ft) elevation

Peruvian feather grass, yareta but also lichens and mosses grow on the slopes of Chachani and other regional volcanoes.[53] Vegetation is scarce to absent above 4,500 metres (14,800 ft) elevation,[6] and much of its lower slopes were stripped of their vegetation during the colonial era. The dry soils are not suitable for agriculture.[54] Part of the volcano is in the Salinas y Aguada Blanca National Reserve.[55] Lizards on the mountain are the highest-altitude known reptile population in the world.[56]

Eruption history

The oldest volcanic formations linked to Chachani are the so-called "

lava flows these form the "Pre-Chachani" units[20] and probably are the largest eruptions experienced by Chachani.[30]

They occur in the wider region of Chachani and crop out in the Arequipa area and in river valleys.[43] Their emplacement took place in the form of fast-moving hot streams of rock.[21] An additional ignimbrite is the 13 million years old[61] Miocene Rio Chili Ignimbrite;[43] the vents of the Miocene units are unknown[47] and the Rio Chili Ignimbrite appears to be related to the Huaylillas Ignimbrite of southern Peru.[61]

Later, during the

argon-argon dating has yielded ages ranging between 1,000,000 - 500,000 years ago for these volcanoes. Later the volcanoes El Rodado, La Horqueta and Chachani (c. 130,000 - 131,000 years ago) formed as a west–east alignment, along with the Uyupampa lava field (about 230,000 - 280,000 years ago) far west from Chachani, the Airport Domes south (between 290,000 - 400,000 years ago), the Cabrería lava domes south-southeast and the Volcancillo dome northeast from Chachani.[63]

The youngest reported date of 56,500 ± 31,600 years ago has been obtained on the Cabrería lava domes;[20] formerly the Airport Domes/Los Angeles/Pampa de Palacio were considered to be the youngest and of Holocene age.[29] However, Volcancillo may be even younger,[64] and a post-glacial lava flow descends the western slope of Chachani between Chachani and Nocarane[23] and phreatic eruptions may have formed Holocene-age craters on Chachani.[65] No historical eruptions are known at the volcanic complex, and the date of the last activity is likewise unclear.[1]

The existence of

dormant.[68] Occasionally, mudflows descend its slopes and cause damages at lower elevations.[69]

Hazards

The city of Arequipa with about one million inhabitants and infrastructure such as the

lava flows and tephra falls are additional hazards.[70] Four hazard scenarios have been established: An effusive eruption would cause serious physical damage, but only little threat to humans. Lava dome forming eruptions may give rise to pyroclastics, but there is no evidence of such pyroclastic deposits.[64] Pyroclastic flow- and Plinian eruptions constitute the other two hazard scenarios.[73]

Chachani is considered to be a high-risk volcano[74] and the Geophysical Institute of Peru in 2018 installed a monitoring station on Chachani.[75] Several volcano hazard map exist: One shows three levels of danger depending on the distance from the edifice,[73] the other two show areas threatened by mudflows and pyroclastic fall.[76] Chachani is monitored with seismometers and tiltmeters.[77] Apart from eruptions, volcano-induced pollution of neighbouring water resources is a concern at Chachani.[78]

Religious importance and archeology

Chachani is the protector mountain spirit of

archeological sites can be found, such as e.g. walls.[81] Nevertheless, evidence of Inka human sacrifice known as capacocha was found during archeological expeditions;[82] a finding from 1896 is the earliest known finding of such a sacrifice.[83]

Mining

Chachani was reportedly mined for sulfur during the colonial era[84] and for the white "sillar" rocks that were used in construction of the[85] famous buildings of colonial-era Arequipa,[84] which is also known as the "white city".[53]

Notes

  1. SRTM yields 6,056 metres (19,869 ft),[17] ASTER 6,043 metres (19,826 ft)[18] and TanDEM-X 6,012 metres (19,724 ft).[19]
  2. parent peak is Huascaran Sur and the Topographic isolation is 1,022.9 kilometres (635.6 mi).[2]
  3. ^ Different studies have come to different numbers of individual volcanoes making up the Chachani complex.[20]
  4. ^ Also known as Nocarani,[7] Noccarani[25] and Nocorane.[21]
  5. ^ Also known as Las Cortaderas[22] or Los Angeles-Pampa de Palacio.[29]

References

  1. ^ a b c d e f g h Palacios et al. 2009, p. 1.
  2. ^ a b "Chachani". Andes Specialists. Retrieved 2020-04-12.
  3. ^ a b c d "Volcán Chachani" (in Spanish). Ministerio de Comercio Exterior y Turismo. Archived from the original on 3 July 2020. Retrieved 26 May 2019.
  4. ISBN 9781139451123
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  5. S2CID 172863412
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  6. ^ a b c d Andrés et al. 2011, p. 151.
  7. ^ a b c d e f g h Andrés et al. 2011, p. 152.
  8. ^ Cuber, Panajew & Gałaś 2015, p. 64.
  9. ^ Legros 2001, p. 16.
  10. ^ ROTCH 1893, p. 284.
  11. ^ a b Arteaga et al. 2023, p. 49.
  12. ^ a b de Silva & Francis 1990, p. 288.
  13. ^ Bullard 1962, p. 444.
  14. ^ Vela et al. 2016, p. 4.
  15. ^ a b de Silva & Francis 1990, p. 287.
  16. ^ Cuber, Panajew & Gałaś 2015, p. 63.
  17. ^ USGS, EROS Archive. "USGS EROS Archive - Digital Elevation - SRTM Coverage Maps". Retrieved 12 April 2020.
  18. ^ "ASTER GDEM Project". ssl.jspacesystems.or.jp. Retrieved 14 April 2020.
  19. ^ TanDEM-X, TerraSAR-X. "Copernicus Space Component Data Access". Archived from the original on 12 April 2020. Retrieved 12 April 2020.
  20. ^ a b c d e f g Aguilar et al. 2015, p. 138.
  21. ^ a b c Cuber, Panajew & Gałaś 2015, p. 65.
  22. ^ a b c d e f g de Silva & Francis 1990, p. 293.
  23. ^ a b c de Silva & Francis 1990, pp. 294–295.
  24. ^
    Bibcode:2012EGUGA..14.3677A
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  25. ^ Finizola et al. 2004, p. 346.
  26. ^ a b c d e Bullard 1962, p. 445.
  27. ^ a b Aguilar et al. 2022, p. 2.
  28. ^ a b c d Aguilar et al. 2015, p. 139.
  29. ^ a b c d García, Chorowicz & Legros 1997, p. 453.
  30. ^ a b c d "Chachani". volcano.oregonstate.edu. Archived from the original on 2019-02-20. Retrieved 2019-05-26.
  31. ^ a b Aguilar et al. 2015, p. 140.
  32. ^ García, Chorowicz & Legros 1997, p. 450.
  33. ^ a b Kosaka Masuno, Macedo Franco & Diaz Urquizo 2000, p. 11.
  34. JSTOR 519887
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  35. ^ a b c d Pallares et al. 2015, p. 644.
  36. ^ a b García, Chorowicz & Legros 1997, p. 451.
  37. ^ a b c d Lebti et al. 2006, p. 252.
  38. ^ a b c Payne, D. (1998). "Climatic implications of rock glaciers in the arid Western Cordillera of the Central Andes". Glacial Geology and Geomorphology: 6 – via ResearchGate.
  39. ^ a b Pallares et al. 2015, p. 643.
  40. S2CID 239545739 – via ResearchGate
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  41. ^ Bullard 1962, p. 443.
  42. ^ Kosaka Masuno, Macedo Franco & Diaz Urquizo 2000, p. 14.
  43. ^ a b c Lebti et al. 2006, p. 254.
  44. ^ Finizola et al. 2004, p. 348.
  45. ^ Legros 2001, p. 26.
  46. ISSN 0016-7002
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  47. ^
    Bibcode:2003EAEJA....10465P
    .
  48. ISSN 1138-9788
    .
  49. ^ ROTCH 1893, p. 285.
  50. ^ Palacios et al. 2009, p. 2.
  51. ^ ROTCH 1893, p. 282.
  52. doi:10.1038/052514a0
    .
  53. ^ a b c Cuber, Panajew & Gałaś 2015, p. 66.
  54. ^ Love 2017, p. 26.
  55. S2CID 33036188
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  56. ISSN 2682-955X
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  57. ^ García, Chorowicz & Legros 1997, p. 449.
  58. ^ Lebti et al. 2006, p. 253.
  59. ^ Lebti et al. 2006, pp. 254–255.
  60. ^ Lebti et al. 2006, p. 273.
  61. ^ a b Lebti et al. 2006, p. 257.
  62. ^ Pallares et al. 2015, p. 645.
  63. ^ Aguilar et al. 2015, pp. 138–139.
  64. ^ a b Arteaga et al. 2023, p. 50.
  65. ^ Aguilar et al. 2022, p. 15.
  66. ^
    JSTOR 3451364
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  67. ^ Macedo, Orlando; Ancassi, Rosa; Centeno, Ricky (2014). "Sismos distales de fractura observados en la zona de los volcanes Misti y Chachani". Repositorio Institucional - IGP (in Spanish): 4.
  68. S2CID 135125919
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  69. ^ Rivera et al. 2021, p. 3.
  70. ^ a b Vela et al. 2016, p. 14.
  71. ^ a b Rivera et al. 2021, p. 20.
  72. ^ Arteaga et al. 2023, p. 53.
  73. ^ a b Arteaga et al. 2023, p. 51.
  74. ^ Vela et al. 2016, p. 29.
  75. ^ "Arequipa: IGP inicia vigilancia de actividad volcánica del Chachani". El Comercio. 2 September 2018. Retrieved 26 May 2019.
  76. ^ Arteaga et al. 2023, p. 52.
  77. S2CID 240447272
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  78. S2CID 251690349
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  79. ^ Love 2017, p. 25.
  80. ^ Ceruti 2013, p. 370.
  81. ^ Ceruti 2013, pp. 360–361.
  82. ^ Ceruti 2013, p. 362.
  83. S2CID 230526835
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  84. ^ a b Ceruti 2013, p. 369.
  85. ^ Ceruti 2013, p. 361.

Sources

Bibliography

External links

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