Chams
ꨂꨣꩃ ꨌꩌꨛꨩ Urang Campa | |
---|---|
Total population | |
c. 822,648 | |
Regions with significant populations | |
Cambodia | 600,000[1] |
Vietnam | 178,948[2] |
Malaysia | 25,000[3] |
China | 10,000[4] |
Thailand | 4,000 |
United States | 3,000 |
France | 1,000 |
Laos | 700[5] |
Languages | |
Cham, Tsat, Haroi, Vietnamese, Khmer | |
Religion | |
Predominantly Sunni Islam (Cambodia, Malaysia, Thailand, southern Vietnam, and Hainan, China) Minorities of Shi'a Bani Islam and Hinduism (central Vietnam)[6] | |
Related ethnic groups | |
Utsuls, and other Austronesian peoples (especially Jarai, Rade, Acehnese) |
The Chams (
From the 2nd century CE, the Cham founded Champa, a collection of independent Hindu-Buddhist principalities in what is now central and southern Vietnam. By the 17th century CE, Champa became an Islamic sultanate.[10] Today, the Cham people are largely Muslim, with a minority following Hinduism, both formed the indigenous Muslim and Hindu population in both Cambodia and Vietnam.[11] Despite their adherence to Islam, the Cham people still retain their ancestral practice of matriarchy in family and inheritance.[12]
The Cham people speak
History
This section's factual accuracy is disputed. (February 2022) |
For a long time,[specify] researchers believed that the Chams had arrived by sea in the first millennium BC from Sumatra, Borneo and the Malay Peninsula, eventually settling in central modern Vietnam.[15]
The original Cham are therefore the likely heirs of
Patterns and chronology of migration remain debated and it is assumed that the Cham people, the only Austronesian ethnic group originated from South Asia, arrived later in
Cham folklore includes a
Early history
Like countless other political entities of Southeast Asia, the Champa principalities underwent the process of
The Daoyi Zhilüe records that at Cham ports, Cham women were often married to Chinese merchants, who frequently came back to them after trading voyages.[25][26][27] A Chinese merchant from Quanzhou, Wang Yuanmao, traded extensively with Champa and married a Cham princess.[28]
In the 12th century, the Cham fought a series of wars with the Khmer Empire to the west. In 1177, the Cham and their allies launched an attack from the lake Tonlé Sap and managed to sack the Khmer capital of Angkor. In 1181, however, they were defeated by the Khmer King Jayavarman VII.
Encounter with Islam
Islam first arrived in Champa around the ninth century; however, it did not become significant among the Cham people until after the eleventh century.[29]
Cham who migrated to Sulu were Orang Dampuan.[30] Champa and Sulu engaged in commerce with each other which resulted in merchant Chams settling in Sulu where they were known as Orang Dampuan from the 10th-13th centuries. The Orang Dampuan were slaughtered by envious native Sulu Buranuns due to the wealth of the Orang Dampuan.[31] The Buranun were then subjected to retaliatory slaughter by the Orang Dampuan. Harmonious commerce between Sulu and the Orang Dampuan was later restored.[32] The Yakans were descendants of the Taguima-based Orang Dampuan who came to Sulu from Champa.[30] Sulu received civilization in its Indic form from the Orang Dampuan.[33]
A number of Cham also fled across the sea to the
Historical records in
Another significant figure from Champa in the history of Islam in Indonesia is Raden Rakhmat (Prince Rahmat) who's also known as
Recent scholarship, however, has shown that widespread conversion to Islam came much later. Poorly studied artifacts such as Islamic graves (which simply could have been ships' ballast) have been reexamined to show that they were, in fact, Tunisian and not Cham. Poorly conducted linguistic research attempting to link vocabulary to Arabic has been debunked as well. Rather, there is no sound evidence for widespread conversion to Islam until the 16th century.[41]
Wars with the Vietnamese
Between the rise of the Khmer Empire around 800 and the
The Cham were matrilineal and inheritance passed through the mother.[45] Because of this, in 1499 the Vietnamese enacted a law banning marriage between Cham women and Vietnamese men, regardless of class.[46](Tạ 1988, p. 137)[47][48][49] The Vietnamese also issued instructions in the capital to kill all Chams within the vicinity.[50] More attacks by the Vietnamese continued and in 1693 the Champa Kingdom's territory was integrated as part of Vietnamese territory.[43]
The trade in Vietnamese ceramics was damaged due to the plummet in trade by Cham merchants after the Vietnamese invasion.[51] Vietnam's export of ceramics was also damaged by its internal civil war, the Portuguese and Spanish entry into the region and the Portuguese conquest of Malacca which caused an upset in the trading system, while the carracks ships in the Malacca to Macao trade run by the Portuguese docked at Brunei due to good relations between the Portuguese and Brunei after the Chinese permitted Macao to be leased to the Portuguese.[52]
When the Ming dynasty in China fell, several thousand Chinese refugees fled south and extensively settled on Cham lands and in Cambodia.[53] Most of these Chinese were young males, and they took Cham women as wives. Their children identified more with Chinese culture. This migration occurred in the 17th and 18th centuries.[54]
Chams participated in
In the 18th century and the 19th century, Cambodian-based Chams settled in Bangkok.[55]
Fall of the Champa kingdom
Further expansion by the Vietnamese in 1692 resulted in the total annexation of the Champa kingdom
After Vietnam invaded and conquered Champa, Cambodia granted refuge to Cham Muslims escaping from Vietnamese conquest.[57]
In 1832, the Vietnamese Emperor Minh Mang annexed the last Champa Kingdom. This resulted in the Cham Muslim leader
20th century
At the division of Vietnam in 1954, majority of Cham population remained in South Vietnam. A handful dozens of Chams who were members of the
In Cambodia, due to discriminatory treatments of the colonial and following Sihanouk governments, the Cham communities here sought communism. The Cham began to rise in prominence in Cambodian politics when they joined the communists as early as the 1950s, with a Cham elder, Sos Man joining the Indochina Communist Party and rising through the ranks to become a major in the Party's forces. He then returned home to the Eastern Zone in 1970 and joined the Communist Party of Kampuchea (CPK), and he co-established the Eastern Zone Islamic Movement with his son, Mat Ly. Together, they became the mouthpiece of the Khmer Rouge and they encouraged the Cham people to participate in the revolution. Sos Man's Islamic Movement was also tolerated by the Khmer Rouge's leadership between 1970 and 1975. The Chams were gradually forced to abandon their faith and their distinct practices, a campaign which was launched in the Southwest as early as 1972.[65]
In the 1960s various movements emerged calling for the creation of a separate Cham state in Vietnam. The
During the Vietnam War, a sizable number of Chams migrated to Peninsular Malaysia, where they were granted sanctuary by the Malaysian government out of sympathy for fellow Muslims; most of them have now assimilated with Malay cultures.[43][66] The integrated community who self identifies as Melayu Champa ("Champa Malay") has dabbled into trades of agarwood, clothing (especially in Kelantan) and fishery (in coastal Pahang) from their arrival in the late 1970s to the 80s.[66]
The Cham community suffered a major blow during the Cambodian genocide in Democratic Kampuchea. The Khmer Rouge targeted ethnic minorities like Chinese, Thai, Lao, Vietnamese and the Cham people, though the Cham suffered the largest death toll in proportion to their population. Around 80,000 to 100,000 Cham out of a total Cham population of 250,000 people in 1975, died in the genocide.[67][68][69]
21st century
The Cham in Vietnam are officially recognized by the Vietnamese government as one of 54 ethnic groups. There has also been wide-reaching recognition of the historical
An attempt at
There is evidence that the Acehnese people of Aceh, Sumatra, Indonesia are the descendants of Cham refugees who fled after defeat by the Vietnamese polity in the 15th century.[7][71]
Geography
Eastern Chams (also known as Panduranga Chams or Phan Rang Chams) and their related ethnic groups,
The Western Cham population is concentrated between the in
After the fall of
Politics
While historically complicated, the modern Chams of Cambodia and Vietnam have had friendly relationships with the Khmer and Vietnamese majority. Despite ethnic and religious differences, the majority people of Cambodia and Vietnam have accepted the Cham as closer to them than other minorities.[29] Some Muslim Cham report a friendly attitude of both Cambodians and Vietnamese toward the Chams and little harassment against them from locals.[76] However, between government and people, it is difficult to categorize. According to Cham human rights activists, the Vietnamese regime, the fears of historical influence has evolved into suppression of Islam among Muslims Chams. For example, there is an unofficial ban on distributing the Quran and other Islamic scripture.[77] Even with Vietnam's growing relations with Muslim states like Indonesia, Malaysia, Saudi Arabia, Iran, Turkey and Egypt, the regime discourages growth of Islam because the Vietnamese government distrusts the Cham Muslims.[78]
"Relations between the Hanoi government and ethnic minorities are sensitive. In 2001 and 2004 massive human rights protests by hill tribes resulted in deaths and mass imprisonments. For some time after that, the Central Highlands were sealed off to foreigners."[79]
According to international scholars, it's observed that both modern Cham separatism and Cham nationhood are non-existent.[80] The only active representative organization for the Chams, the International Office of Champa (IOC), whose headquarter locates in San Jose, California, only demands civil and land rights for the Cham people in Vietnam and Cambodia. Criticism and concerns against Vietnamese, Indian, Malaysian governments and tourist corporations for misappropriating Cham heritage and ignoring living indigenous culture was made by the IOC and international scientists in recent years.[81][82]
Culture
The Cham culture is diverse and rich because of the combination of indigenous cultural elements (plains culture, maritime culture, and mountain culture) and foreign cultural features (Indian cultures and religions such as Buddhism; early Han Chinese influences; Islam) (Phan Xuan Bien et al. 1991:376). The blend of indigenous and foreign elements in Cham culture is a result of ecological, social, and historical conditions. The influences of various Indian cultures produced similarities among many groups in Southeast Asia such as the Cham, who traded or communicated with polities on the Indian subcontinent. However, the indigenous elements also allow for cultural distinctions. As an example, Brahmanism became the Ahier religion, while other aspects of influence were changed, to adapt to local Ahier characteristics and environment. The blending of various cultures has produced its own unique form through the prolific production of sculptures and architecture only seen at the Champa temple tower sites.[citation needed]
The Cham shielded and always observed their girls attentively, placing great importance on their virginity. A Cham saying said "As well leave a man alone with a girl, as an elephant in a field of sugarcane."[83]
The Cham Muslims view the karoeh (also spelled karoh) ceremony for girls as very significant. This symbolic ceremony marks the passage of a girl from infancy to puberty (the marriageable age), and usually takes place when the girl is aged fifteen and has completed her development.[84] If it has not taken place, the girl cannot marry since she is "tabung". After the ceremony is done the girl can marry. Circumcision to the Cham was less significant than karoeh.[85] It is not practiced, only symbolic and performed with a toy wooden knife.[86]
Important festivals include Kate, celebrated mainly by the Cham of central Vietnam. The festival venerates ancient Cham royalty gods. Among Cham Muslims, Ramadan, El Fitri, and the Hajj are important celebrations. However, the Cham (regardless of faith) all have a very rich tradition of dance, arts, music, costumes, poetry, and more.
Language
The
Cham is written in Eastern Cham script in Central Vietnam while the language is predominantly written in Jawi Arabic script around the Mekong Delta.[29] Western Cham script, used in Cambodia, is different enough from Eastern Cham's to be under review by the Unicode Consortium for inclusion as its own block — as of 2022, the character set is still being revised.[87]
The Kan Imam San sect, accounting for about 10% of the Cambodian Cham minority and mainly centered around a few villages in the Tralach District of Kampong Chhnang Province and their historic mosque atop Phnom Oudong, have kept the use of the Western Cham script, akhar srak, alive — with grants from the US embassy for about a decade starting in 2007, the written form of Western Cham has moved from the preserve of a few elders to being taught in close to 20 classrooms with thousands of students exposed to some degree, albeit limited.[88][89]
Almost all of the existing texts are housed at two Kan Imam San mosques in Kampong Tralach, primarily at the Au Russey mosque.[90]
Religion
The first recorded religion of the Champa was a form of Shaiva Hinduism, brought by sea from India. Hinduism was the predominant religion among the Cham people until the sixteenth century. Numerous temples dedicated to Shiva were constructed in the central part of what is now Vietnam. The jewel of such temple is Mỹ Sơn. It is often compared with other historical temple complexes in Southeast Asia, such as Borobudur of Java in Indonesia, Angkor Wat of Cambodia, Bagan of Myanmar and Ayutthaya of Thailand. As of 1999, Mỹ Sơn has been recognised by UNESCO as a world heritage site.
Religiously and culturally, the Chams were grouped into two major religio-cultural groups; the Balamon Chams that adhere to an indigenized form of
As Muslim merchants of Arab and of
- The version of Islam practiced by the Vietnamese Chams in Central Vietnam is often called Bani which contains many pre-Islamic beliefs and rituals such as magic, spirit worship, and propitiation of the souls of former kings, something mistaken to Imams) stay at the thang magik (Mosques) for one month and pray to God the practice is known as Iʿtikāf. In general, the Bani Muslims are not willing to identify themselves as Shi'a or even Muslims, but as Bani Muslims instead, although some even openly reject the terms "Muslims" in favour of "Banis" alone.[91] It should be noted, however, that the notion of Bani being an Islamic sect is only a norm used by the official narratives, while most Muslim scholars reject Bani as an Islamic sect due to its abnormal practise unseen even in mainstream Shia Islam, where Bani originated from.[92]
- The version of Islam practised by Cambodian and Southern Vietnamese Chams belong to mainstream Sunni Islam, mainly to the However, a small band of Chams, who called themselves Kaum Jumaat, follow a localized adaptation of Islamic theology, according to which they pray only on Fridays and celebrate Ramadan for only three days. Some members of this group have joined the larger Muslim Cham community in their practices of Islam in recent years. One of the factors for this change is the influence by members of their family who have gone abroad to study Islam.
Numbers
The number of Balamon Cham Hindus in Vietnam were declared at 64,547 (36%) out of a total Cham population of 178,948 according to the 2019 population census.[93] They do not have a caste system, although previously they may have been divided between the Nagavamshi Kshatriya[94] and the Brahmin castes, the latter of which would have represented a small minority of the population.[95]
Hindu temples are known as Bimong in Cham language, but are commonly referred to as tháp "stupa", in Vietnamese. The priests are divided into three levels, where the highest rank are known as Po Adhia or Po Sá, followed by Po Tapáh and the junior priests Po Paséh. By the 17th century, due to pressures from king Po Rome, the Ahier (Balamon) were forced to accept Allah as the most supreme God while retaining the worships of other Balamon deities in their faiths.
The majority of Hindu Chams in Vietnam (also known as the Eastern Chams) are syncretic Ahiér
Cuisine
Popular Cham dishes are muthin ritong (rice with fish), lithei jrau (rice with meat and vegetables), abu mutham (gruel with fish and vegetables), and kari cam murong (chicken or beef curry).[99] A specialty of Chams in An Giang province is the beef sausage tung lamaow (Cham: ꨓꨭꩂ ꨤꨟꨯꨱꨥ).[100][101] Chams in this province are also known for their beef, goat or chicken curry with rice.[102][103][104]
Chams eat three meals a day – breakfast, lunch and dinner – with
Cham cuisine is very similar to the cuisines of
In Malaysia, where the majority of Cham are from Cambodia, most of their dishes, such as leas hal, num banhchok, and num kong, are of Cambodian origin, while the Cham style of coffee (café Yuon) and green tea have been adopted from the Vietnamese. Other Malaysia's Cham dishes, such as tung lamaow and paynong (banana-filled glutinous rice cakes wrapped in banana leaves) are known by Chams in both Cambodia and Vietnam.[107]
Notable Chams
In accordance with Cham custom, the surname is followed by the given name.
- Po Tisuntiraidapuran, ruler of Champa from 1780 to 1793
- FULRO(d. 1976)
- Po Dharma, Vietnamese-Cham activist leader of FULRO, he was also a Cham cultural historian
- Sos Math, Cambodian-Cham singer, songwriter from the 1950s to the 1970s ; his son Sos Mach is also a popular singer from the 90's still today
- Has Salan, Cambodian-Cham classical violinist, composer and actor from the 1950s to 1970s
- Musa Porome, Cham rights activist
- Maha Sajan, king of Champa
- Amu Nhan, expert on Cham music
- Po Binasuor, the last strong king of Champa
- Chế Linh, Vietnamese-Cham singer
- Dang Nang Tho, Vietnamese-Cham sculptor and director of Cham Cultural Center, Phan Rang, Ninh Thuan Province
- Inrasara [vi] (Mr Phu Tram), poet and author
- H.E. Othman Hassan (អូស្មាន ហាស្សាន់៖), Cambodian-Cham politician; secretary of state at the Ministry of Labor and Vocational Training of Cambodia, Advisor and Special Envoy to Prime Minister Hun Sen, President of Cambodian Muslim Development Foundation (CMDF), Secretary General of the Foundation for Cambodian People's Poverty Alleviation (PAL), vice-director of Cambodian Islamic Center (CIC), Patron of Islamic Medical Association of Cambodia (IMAC); Cambodian People's Party
- H.E. Nos Sles (ណុះ ស្លេះ), Cambodian-Cham politician; secretary of state at the Ministry of Education and Sport of Cambodia; Cambodian People's Party
- H.E. National Assembly of Cambodia representing Kampong Cham province, President of Cambodian Islamic Development Association (CIDA); Candlelight Party and Cambodia National Rescue Party
- H.E. Zakarya Adam, Cambodian-Cham politician; Secretary of State at Ministry of Cults and Religion, Vice President of CMDF, General Secretary of CIC & Vice-chairperson of IWMC; Cambodian People's Party
- H.E. Sith Ibrahim, Cambodian-Cham politician; Secretary of State at Ministry of Cults and Religion; FUNCINPEC
- H.E. Dr. Sos Mousine, Cambodian-Cham politician; Under Secretary of State at Ministry of Rural Development, President of Cambodian Muslim Students Association and IMAC, Member of CMDF, Under-General Secretary of CIC; Cambodian People's Party
- H.E. Sman Teath, Cambodian-Cham politician; Member of Parliament representing Pursat, Member of CMDF, Under-General Secretary of CIC; Cambodian People's Party
- H.E. Sem Sokha, Cambodian-Cham politician; Under Secretary of State at Ministry of Social Affairs and Veterans, member of CMDF; Cambodian People's Party
- Her E. Kob Mariah, Cambodian-Cham politician; Under Secretary at Ministry of Women, General Secretary of Cambodian Islamic Women Development & Cambodian Islamic Women's Development Organization Association, member of CMDF; Cambodian People's Party
- H.E. Msas Loh, Cambodian-Cham politician; Under Secretary of State at Office of the Council of Ministers, Patron of Cambodian Islamic Association; Cambodian People's Party
- H.E. Paing Punyamin, Cambodian-Cham politician; Member of Parliament representing Kampong Chhnang, Member of CMDF, Executive Member of CIC; Cambodian People's Party
- H.E. Wan Math, Cambodian-Cham politician; Member of the Senate, President of Cambodian Islamic Association; Cambodian People's Party
- H.E. Sabo Bacha, Cambodian-Cham politician; Member of the Senate; FUNCINPEC
- Sem Soprey, Cambodian-Cham politician ; Vice Governor of Kampong Cham province & Member of CMDF ; Cambodian People's Party
- Saleh Sen, Cambodian-Cham politician; Vice Governorof Kampong Chhnang province & Member of CMDF
- H.E. Ismail Osman, Cambodian-Cham politician; Advisor to His Royal Highness Prince Norodom Ranariddh (នរោត្តម រណឫទ្) of the Kingdom of Cambodia, President of the National Assembly; FUNCINPEC
- General Chao Tol, Cambodian-Cham politician; Assistant to the Prime Minister Hun Sen; Cambodian People's Party
- General Sen Komary, Cambodian-Cham politician; Head of Department of Health at Ministry of National Defense, Member of IMAC; Cambodian People's Party
- Samad Bounthong, Cham-American soccer player[108]
- Yeu Muslim, Cambodian footballer
- Dụng Quang Nho, Vietnamese footballer
Data tables
Admixture analysis of the two populations from southern Vietnam. | ||
---|---|---|
Admixed populations | Parental populations | |
MSEA1 ( n = 890) |
WISEA2 ( n = 983)
| |
Cham ( n = 59) |
0.62405¶ 0.629437 ± 0.256634† |
0.37595 0.370563 ± 0.256634
|
n = 70) |
0.842972 0.839953 ± 0.56035 |
0.157028 0.160047 ± 0.56035
|
Note: ¶ admixture coefficient; † bootstrap average and standard deviation of the admixture coefficient were obtained by bootstrap with 1000 replications. 1 MSEA: Mainland Southeast Asia 2 WISEA: western island Southeast Asia | ||
Source: Table 2, Page 7, He Jun-dong et al. (2012)[109] |
See also
- Art of Champa
- Cham alphabet
- Cham language
- Cham calendar
- Islam in Cambodia
- Islam in Vietnam
- Hinduism in Southeast Asia
Notes
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- ^ Mag. Philipp Bruckmayr. "DISSERTATION : The Contentious Pull of the Malay Logosphere: Jawization and Factionalism among Cambodian Muslims (late 19th to early 21st centuries)". Phaidra.univie.ac.at. Retrieved 24 February 2022.
- ^ a b c d Yoshimoto, Yasuko (December 2012). "A Study of the Hồi giáo Religion in Vietnam: With a Reference to Islamic Religious Practices of Cham Bani" (PDF). Southeast Asian Studies. 1 (3). Kyoto: Center for Southeast Asian Studies, Kyoto University.
- ^ https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=LUVzO-fYrZs
- ^ "Completed Results of the 2019 Vietnam population and housing census" (PDF). gso.gov.vn. 2020.
- ^ India's interaction with Southeast Asia, Volume 1, Part 3 By Govind Chandra Pande, Project of History of Indian Science, Philosophy, and Culture, Centre for Studies in Civilizations (Delhi, India) p.231,252
- ^ "Vietnam". State.gov. 22 October 2002. Retrieved 17 June 2014.
- ^ "Cham - Introduction, Location, Language, Folklore, Religion, Major holidays, Rites of passage, Relationships, Living conditions". Everyculture.com. Retrieved 17 June 2014.
- ^ The Garland handbook of Southeast Asian music By Terry E. Miller, Sean Williams. p. 326
- ^ Carter, Terence (13 November 2014). "A Recipe for Saraman Curry or Cari Saramann – a Cambodian curry". Grantourismo Travels. Retrieved 24 April 2021.
- ^ "Unique Cham Cuisine". Hanoi Times. 28 July 2014. Retrieved 24 April 2021.
- ^ Le Xuan (25 December 2017). "Tung lamaow - A specialty of Cham people". VietNamNet. Retrieved 24 April 2021.
- ^ Viet An (17 July 2022). "Special red sausage of the Cham ethnic people". Saigon Times. Retrieved 3 September 2023.
- ^ "Cham curry – specialty of Cham people in An Giang". VietNamNet. 11 October 2014. Retrieved 24 April 2021.
- ^ "Cham curry – specialty of Cham people in An Giang". Saigon Times. 10 November 2014. Retrieved 3 September 2023.
- ^ "Cham curry – specialty of Cham people in An Giang". Nhân Dân. 3 April 2015. Retrieved 3 September 2023.
- ^ a b "The Cham clan and traditions". Vietnam Law Magazine. 2 July 2018. Retrieved 24 April 2021.
- ISBN 978-1-780-23657-5.
The new Việt settlers soon acquired culinary habits and dishes from the local Chams and Khmers, most notably the use of spices and various curries. Many other Cham and Khmer dishes may have been included in Vietnamese southern cuisine at the time, but the most recognizable legacy was the fermented food. (...) Mắm nêm was a typical Cham food that entered southern Vietnamese cuisine during the Nguyễn Southern Push. (...) Cham food is very much like that of Cambodia, Laos and northern Thailand. It is sweeter and spicier than northern Vietnamese food and uses many different types of mắm, one of which is mắm nêm. (...) Another mắm that may have been a Cham product is mắm ruốc, a similar paste made with ground small shrimps and salt and left to ferment for days until it changes from purple to red. It is a famous condiment of central Vietnam, the former Cham land, and is used to season many dishes; it can also be eaten in its own right with raw vegetables, herbs and boiled pork. Mắm ruốc is a vital ingredient in the central Vietnamese noodle dish bún bò Huế.
- S2CID 235029137.
A majority of the Cham refugees in Malaysia came from Cambodia, and most 'Cham' dishes found in Malaysia originate from Cambodia, including leas hal (a salty/spicy sun-dried shellfish), banh chok (rice vermicelli noodle soup), and nom kong (a kind of donut). The Muslim Cham from the Mekong Delta region in Vietnam are familiar with Cambodian food since many of them routinely moved back and forth across the border with Cambodia in the past for business or to visit relatives. Contributions to Cham ethnic foods from Vietnam include Vietnamese style coffee (café Yuon) and green tea. Other Cham ethnic dishes found in Malaysia are beef sausage (ton lamo) and banana-filled glutinous rice cakes wrapped in banana leaves (paynong), which are familiar to both the Cham from Cambodia and those from Vietnam.
- ^ "Samad Bounthong". Lao American Sports. Retrieved 1 March 2022.
- PMID 22586471.
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External links
- Media related to Cham people at Wikimedia Commons
- Britannica Cham people
- Mitsraym, Islam. Cham Muslims: Liberate Not Expatriate. OnIslam.net. 15 September 2012. Retrieved 26 February 2013.
- Cham Muslims of the Mekong Delta Book by Philip Taylor about the settlement history, religion, economic life and political relations of the Cham Muslims in the Mekong delta of Vietnam
- Proceedings of the Seminar on Champa
- Vietnam-Champa Relations and the Malay-Islam Regional Network in the 17th—19th Centuries
- The Survivors of a Lost Civilisation
- Cham Muslims: A look at Cambodia's Muslim minority
- Cham Muslims of Indo-China
- Article about the Cham people living in Ratanakiri Province, Cambodia by Antonio Graceffo
- Article about Cham fishermen living near Mekong Island, Cambodia by Antonio Graceffo
- Stone carvings at Bayon in Cambodia showing a battle between the Khmer and the Cham
- The face of Islam in a Buddhist land, by Murat Karaali, Phnom Penh Post, January 1995
- Chamstudies, a new site on Chams
- Picture of Muslim cham girls [permanent dead link]
- Radio Sapcham