Chandelas of Jejakabhukti

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Chandelas of Jejakabhukti
c. 831 – 1315 CE
Coinage of Sallakshana-Varman (1120–1135 CE), Chandelas of Jejakabhukti of Chandela
Coinage of Sallakshana-Varman (1120–1135 CE), Chandelas of Jejakabhukti
Kalanjara
  • Mahoba
  • Common languagesSanskrit
    Religion
    GovernmentMonarchy
    Historical eraMedieval India
    • Established
    c. 831 
    • Disestablished
     1315 CE
    Preceded by
    Succeeded by
    Kalachuris of Tripuri
    Ghurid dynasty
    Mamluk dynasty (Delhi)
    Today part ofIndia

    The Chandelas of Jejakabhukti was an Indian dynasty in Central India. The Chandelas ruled much of the Bundelkhand region (then called Jejakabhukti) between the 9th and the 13th centuries. They belonged to the Chandel clan of the Rajputs.[2]

    The Chandelas initially ruled as feudatories of the

    Ghurids. The Chandela power effectively ended around the beginning of the 13th century, following Chahamana
    and Ghurid invasions.

    The Chandelas are well known for their art and architecture, most notably for the temples at their original capital

    Kalinjar and their later capital Mahoba
    .

    Origin

    The origin of the Chandelas is obscured by mythical legends. The epigraphic records of the dynasty, as well as contemporary texts such as Balabhadra-vilasa and Prabodha-chandrodaya, suggest that the Chandelas belonged to the legendary

    Yadavas (who also claimed to be part of the Lunar dynasty).[3]

    Lord Vishnu and Goddess Lakshmi, Khajuraho.

    The Mahoba-Khanda legend of the dynasty's origin goes like this: Hemaraja, a priest of the

    Gaharwar king of Benares, had a beautiful daughter named Hemavati. Once, while Hemavati was bathing in a pond, the moon god Chandra saw her and made love to her. Hemavati was worried about the dishonour of being an unwed mother, but Chandra assured her that their son would become a great king. This child was the dynasty's progenitor Chandravarma. Chandra presented him with a philosopher's stone and taught him politics.[6][3] The dynasty's own records do not mention Hemavati, Hemaraja or Indrajit. Such legends appear to be later bardic inventions. In general, the Mahoba-Khanda is a historically unreliable text.[4] Prithviraj Raso is also considered an historically unreliable text.[7][8][9]

    Celestial dancer (Devata) mid-11th century, Chandela period, Madhya Pradesh. Metropolitan Museum of Art.

    British indologist V. A. Smith theorized that the Chandelas were of either Bhar or Gond origin. Some other scholars including R. C. Majumdar also supported this theory.[10] The Chandelas worshipped Maniya, a tribal goddess, whose temples are located at Mahoba and Maniyagadh.[11] Besides, they have been associated with places that are also associated with Bhars and Gonds. Also, Rani Durgavati, whose family claimed Chandela descent married a Gond chief of Garha-Mandla.[12] Historian R. K. Dikshit does not find these arguments convincing: he argues that Maniya was not a tribal deity.[13] Also, the dynasty's association with Gond territory is not necessarily indicative of a common descent: the dynasty's progenitor may have been posted as a governor in these territories.[12] Finally, Durgavati's marriage to a Gond chief can be dismissed as a one-off case.[13]

    History

    Early rulers

    The Chandelas were originally vassals of the

    Gurjara-Pratiharas.[14] Nannuka (r. c. 831–845 CE), the founder of the dynasty, was the ruler of a small kingdom centered around Khajuraho.[15]

    According to the Chandela inscriptions, Nannuka's successor

    Rashtrakuta invasion or after Mahiapala's conflict with his step-brother Bhoja II.[20]

    Rise as a sovereign power

    A 20th century artist's imagination of Kirtivarman Chandela visiting a Khajuraho temple

    Harsha's son

    Mithila (possibly a small tributary ruler), Malavas (identified with the Paramaras), the Kurus, the Kashmiris and the Gurjaras.[23] These claims appear to be exaggerated, as similar claims of extensive conquests in northern India are also found in the records of the other contemporary kings such as the Kalachuri king Yuva-Raja and the Rashtrakuta king Krishna III.[24] Yashovarman's reign marked the beginning of the famous Chandela-era art and architecture. He commissioned the Lakshmana Temple at Khajuraho.[22]

    Unlike the earlier Chandela inscriptions, the records of Yashovarman's successor

    Andhra, Anga, Kanchi and Raḍha resided in his prisons as a result of his success in wars. These appear to be eulogistic exaggerations by a court poet, but suggest that Dhanga did undertake extensive military campaigns.[26][27] Like his predecessor, Dhanga also commissioned a magnificent temple at Khajuraho, which is identified as the Vishvanatha Temple.[28]

    Dhanga's successor

    Ghaznavid invader Mahmud of Ghazni.[30][31] Mahmud later invaded Vidyadhara's kingdom; according to the Muslim invaders, this conflict ended with Vidyadhara paying tribute to Mahmud.[32] Vidyadhara is noted for having commissioned the Kandariya Mahadeva Temple.[33]

    The Chandela art and architecture reached its zenith during this period. The

    Nagara-style temples are representative of the most fully developed style at Khajuraho.[34]

    Decline

    vyala, Khajuraho
    .
    Kandariya Mahadeva temple carvings.

    By the end of Vidyadhara's reign, the

    Ghaznavid invasions had weakened the Chandela kingdom. Taking advantage of this, the Kalachuri king Gangeya-deva conquered eastern parts of the kingdom.[35] Chandela inscriptions suggest that Vidyadhara's successor Vijayapala (r. c. 1035–1050 CE) defeated Gangeya in a battle.[36] However, the Chandela power started declining during the Vijayapala's reign.[37] The Kachchhapaghatas of Gwalior probably gave up their allegiance to the Chandelas during this period.[38]

    Vijayapala's elder son Devavavarman was subjugated by Gangeya's son Lakshmi-Karna.[39] His younger brother Kirttivarman resurrected the Chandela power by defeating Lakshmi-Karna.[40] Kirtivarman's son Sallakshanavarman achieved military successes against the Paramaras and the Kalachuris, possibly by raiding their territories. A Mau inscription suggests that he also conducted successful campaigns in the Antarvedi region (the Ganga-Yamuna doab).[41] His son Jayavarman was of religious temperament and abdicated the throne after being tired of governance.[42]

    Jayavarman appears to have died heirless, as he was succeeded by his uncle Prithvivarman, the younger son of Kirttivarman.[43] The Chandela inscriptions do not ascribe any military achievements to him; it appears that he was focused on maintaining the existing Chandela territories without adopting an aggressive expansionist policy.[44]

    Revival

    By the time Prithvivarman's son

    Bhilsa (Vidisha). This probably happened during the reign of the Paramara king Yashovarman or his son Jayavarman.[47][48] Once again, the Chandelas could not retain the newly annexed territory for long, and the region was recaptured by Yashovarman's son Lakshmivarman.[46]

    Madanavarman's son Yashovarman II either did not rule, or ruled for a very short time. Madanavarman's grandson Paramardi-deva was the last powerful Chandela king.[52]

    Final decline

    Ghurid Empire invasion of the subcontinent.[53][54]

    Prithviraj Chauhan's raid of Mahoba is corroborated by his

    Ghurid Empire governor of Delhi, invaded the Chandela kingdom.[56] According to Taj-ul-Maasir, a chronicle of the Delhi Sultanate, Paramardi surrendered to the Delhi forces. He promised to pay tribute to the Sultan, but died before he could keep this promise. His dewan offered some resistance to the invading forces, but was ultimately subdued. The 16th century historian Firishta states that Paramardi was assassinated by his own minister, who disagreed with the king's decision to surrender to the Delhi forces.[57]

    The Chandela power did not fully recover from their defeat against the Delhi forces. Paramardi was succeeded by

    Maharajadhiraja, which indicates that the Chandela king had a lower status by his time. The Chandela power continued to decline because of the rising Muslim influence, as well as the rise of other local dynasties, such as the Bundelas, the Baghelas and the Khangars.[58]

    Hammiravarman was succeeded by Viravarman II, whose titles do not indicate a high political status.

    One minor branch of the family continued ruling Kalanjara: its ruler was killed by Sher Shah Suri's army in 1545 CE. Another minor branch ruled at Mahoba: Durgavati, one of its princesses married into the Gond royal family of Mandla. Some other ruling families also claimed Chandela descent (see Chandel).[61]

    Art and architecture

    The Chandelas are well known for their art and architecture. They commissioned a number of temples, water bodies, palaces and forts at various places. The most famous example of their cultural achievements are the Hindu and Jain temples at

    Kalinjar) and Mahotsava-Nagara (modern Mahoba).[62]

    Other smaller Chandela sites include Chandpur, Deogarh, Dudahi, Kakadeo, Madanpur and Aharji.[62][63][64]

    • Chandela sculptures
    • Brahma and his consort, Khajuraho
      Brahma and his consort, Khajuraho
    • Stone carving, Ajaigarh
      Stone carving, Ajaigarh
    • Jain tirthankaras and Sarasvati, Ajaigarh
      Jain
      Sarasvati
      , Ajaigarh
    • Jain heavens, Ajaigarh
      Jain heavens, Ajaigarh
    • Jain shramanas, Ajaigarh
      Jain
      shramanas
      , Ajaigarh
    • Cattle with treasure sign, Ajaigarh
      Cattle with treasure sign, Ajaigarh
    • Surasundari Apsara, Khajuraho
      Surasundari Apsara, Khajuraho
    • Dancing Ganesha, Khajuraho
      Dancing Ganesha, Khajuraho
    • Parshvanatha temple carvings
    • Lakshmana temple carvings

    List of rulers

    Map
    Chandela territory, as indicated by the
    find spots of inscriptions issued during the Chandela reign[65]

    Based on epigraphic records, the historians have come up with the following list of Chandela rulers of Jejākabhukti (

    IAST names in brackets):[66][67][59]

    List of Chandela rulers of Jejākabhukti
    S.N. Ruler's regional name (
    IAST
    name in bracket)
    Reign (CE)
    1 Nannuka 831–845
    2 Vakpati (Vākpati) 845–865
    3 Jayashakti (Jayaśakti) and Vijayashakti (Vijayaśakti) 865–885
    4 Rahila (Rāhila) 885–905
    5 Shri Harsha (Śri Harśa) 905–925
    6 Yasho-Varman (Yaśovarman) 925–950
    7 Dhanga-Deva (Dhaṅgadeva) 950–999
    8 Ganda-Deva (Gaṇḍadeva) 999–1002
    9 Vidyadhara (Vidyādhara) 1003–1035
    10 Vijaya-Pala (Vijayapāla) 1035–1050
    11 Deva-Varman 1050–1060
    12 Kirtti-Varman (Kīrtivarman) 1060–1100
    13 Sallakshana-Varman (Sallakṣaṇavarman) 1100–1110
    14 Jaya-Varman 1110–1120
    15 Prithvi-Varman (Pṛthvīvarman) 1120–1128
    16 Madana-Varman 1128–1164
    17 Yasho-Varman II 1164–1165
    18
    Paramardi-Deva
    1165–1203
    19 Trailokya-Varman 1203–1245
    20 Vira-Varman (Vīravarman) 1245–1285
    21 Bhoja-Varman 1285–1288
    22 Hammira-Varman (Hammīravarman) 1288–1311
    23 Vira-Varman II 1311–1315

    Family tree

    See also

    References