Chaparral
Chaparral (
Many chaparral shrubs have hard
Three other closely related chaparral shrubland systems occur in central Arizona, western Texas, and along the eastern side of central Mexico's mountain chains, all having summer rains in contrast to the Mediterranean climate of other chaparral formations. Chaparral comprises 9% of California's wildland vegetation and contains 20% of its plant species.
Etymology
The name comes from the Spanish word chaparro, which translates to "place of the scrub oak".
Introduction
In its natural state, chaparral is characterized by infrequent fires, with natural fire return intervals ranging between 30 years and over 150 years.[2] Mature chaparral (at least 60 years since time of last fire) is characterized by nearly impenetrable, dense thickets (except the more open desert chaparral). These plants are flammable during the late summer and autumn months when conditions are characteristically hot and dry. They grow as woody shrubs with thick, leathery, and often small leaves, contain green leaves all year (are evergreen), and are typically drought resistant (with some exceptions[3]). After the first rains following a fire, the landscape is dominated by small flowering herbaceous plants, known as fire followers, which die back with the summer dry period.
Similar plant communities are found in the four other Mediterranean climate regions around the world, including the Mediterranean Basin (where it is known as maquis), central Chile (where it is called matorral), the South African Cape Region (known there as fynbos), and in Western and Southern Australia (as kwongan). According to the California Academy of Sciences, Mediterranean shrubland contains more than 20 percent of the world's plant diversity.[4] The word chaparral is a loanword from Spanish chaparro, meaning place of the scrub oak, which itself comes from a Basque word, txapar, that has the same meaning.
California chaparral
California chaparral and woodlands ecoregion
The California chaparral and woodlands ecoregion, of the Mediterranean forests, woodlands, and scrub biome, has three sub-ecoregions with ecosystem—plant community subdivisions:
- Channel Islands off California and Guadalupe Island(Mexico).
- California montane chaparral and woodlands:
In southern and central coast adjacent and inland California regions, including covering some of the mountains of the California Coast Ranges, the Transverse Ranges, and the western slopes of the northern Peninsular Ranges. - California interior chaparral and woodlands:
In central interior California surrounding the Central Valley, covering the foothills and lower slopes of the northeastern Transverse Ranges and the western Sierra Nevada range.
Chaparral and woodlands biota
For the numerous individual plant and animal species found within the California chaparral and woodlands ecoregion, see:
Some of the indicator plants of the California chaparral and woodlands ecoregion include:
- Quercusspecies – oaks:
- Quercus agrifolia – coast live oak
- Quercus berberidifolia – scrub oak
- Quercus chrysolepis – canyon live oak
- Quercus douglasii – blue oak
- Quercus wislizeni – interior live oak
- Artemisiaspecies – sagebrush:
- Artemisia californica – California sagebrush, coastal sage brush
- Arctostaphylos species – manzanitas:
- Arctostaphylos glauca – bigberry manzanita
- Arctostaphylos manzanita – common manzanita
- Ceanothus species – California lilacs:
- Ceanothus cuneatus – buckbrush
- Ceanothus megacarpus – bigpod ceanothus
- Rhusspecies – sumacs:
- Rhus integrifolia – lemonade berry
- Rhus ovata – sugar bush
- Eriogonum species – buckwheats:
- Eriogonum fasciculatum – California buckwheat
- Salvia species – sages:
- Salvia mellifera – Californian black sage
Chaparral soils and nutrient composition
Chaparral characteristically is found in areas with steep topography and shallow stony soils, while adjacent areas with clay soils, even where steep, tend to be colonized by annual plants and grasses. Some chaparral species are adapted to nutrient-poor soils developed over serpentine and other ultramafic rock, with a high ratio of magnesium and iron to calcium and potassium, that are also generally low in essential nutrients such as nitrogen.
California cismontane and transmontane chaparral subdivisions
Another phytogeography system uses two California chaparral and woodlands subdivisions: the cismontane chaparral and the transmontane (desert) chaparral.
California cismontane chaparral
Cismontane chaparral ("this side of the mountain") refers to the chaparral ecosystem in the Mediterranean forests, woodlands, and scrub biome in California, growing on the western (and coastal) sides of large mountain range systems, such as the western slopes of the Sierra Nevada in the San Joaquin Valley foothills, western slopes of the Peninsular Ranges and California Coast Ranges, and south-southwest slopes of the Transverse Ranges in the Central Coast and Southern California regions.
Cismontane chaparral plant species
In Central and Southern California chaparral forms a dominant habitat. Members of the chaparral biota native to California, all of which tend to regrow quickly after fires, include:
- Adenostoma fasciculatum, chamise
- Adenostoma sparsifolium, redshanks
- Arctostaphylos spp., manzanita
- Ceanothus spp., ceanothus
- Cercocarpus spp., mountain mahogany
- Cneoridium dumosum, bush rue
- Eriogonum fasciculatum, California buckwheat
- Garrya spp., silk-tassel bush
- Hesperoyucca whipplei, yucca
- Heteromeles arbutifolia, toyon
- Acmispon glaber, deerweed
- Malosma laurina, laurel sumac
- Marah macrocarpus, wild cucumber
- Mimulus aurantiacus, bush monkeyflower
- Pickeringia montana, chaparral pea
- Prunus ilicifolia, islay or hollyleaf cherry
- Quercus berberidifolia, scrub oak
- Q. dumosa, scrub oak
- Q. wislizeniivar. frutescens
- Rhamnus californica, California coffeeberry
- Rhus integrifolia, lemonade berry
- Rhus ovata, sugar bush
- Salvia apiana, Californian white sage
- Salvia mellifera, Californian black sage
- Xylococcus bicolor, mission manzanita
Cismontane chaparral bird species
The complex ecology of chaparral habitats supports a very large number of animal species. The following is a short list of birds which are an integral part of the cismontane chaparral ecosystems.
- Characteristic chaparral bird species include:
- Wrentit (Chamaea fasciata)
- California thrasher (Toxostoma redivivum)
- California towhee (Melozone crissalis)
- Spotted towhee (Pipilo maculatus)
- California scrub jay (Aphelocoma californica)
- Other common chaparral bird species include:
- Anna's hummingbird (Calypte anna)
- Bewick's wren (Thryomanes bewickii)
- Bushtit (Psaltriparus minimus)
- Costa's hummingbird (Calypte costae)
- Greater roadrunner (Geococcyx californianus)
California transmontane (desert) chaparral
Transmontane chaparral or desert chaparral —transmontane ("the other side of the mountain") chaparral—refers to the
Transmontane chaparral or desert chaparral is found on the eastern slopes of major
Due to the lower annual rainfall (resulting in slower plant growth rates) when compared to cismontane chaparral, desert chaparral is more vulnerable to biodiversity loss and the invasion of non-native weeds and grasses if disturbed by human activity and frequent fire.
Transmontane chaparral distribution
Transmontane (desert) chaparral typically grows on the lower (3,500–4,500 feet (1,100–1,400 m) elevation) northern slopes of the southern Transverse Ranges (running east to west in
The California transmontane (desert) chaparral is found in the rain shadow deserts of the following:
- Sierra Nevada creating the Great Basin Desert and northern Mojave Desert
- Transverse ranges creating the western through eastern Mojave Desert
Transmontane chaparral plants
- chamise (a low shrub common to most chaparral with clusters of tiny needle like leaves or fascicles; similar in appearance to coastal Eriogonum fasciculatum)
- Agave deserti, desert agave
- Arctostaphylos glauca, bigberry manzanita (smooth red bark with large edible berries; glauca means blue-green, the color of its leaves)
- Ceanothus greggii, desert ceanothus, California lilac (a nitrogen fixer, has hair on both sides of leaves for heat dissipation)
- Cercocarpus ledifolius, curl leaf mountain mahogany, a nitrogen fixer important food source for desert bighorn sheep
- Dendromecon rigida, bush poppy (a fire follower with four petaled yellow flowers)
- Mormon teas
- Fremontodendron californicum, California flannel bush (lobed leaves with fine coating of hair, covered with yellow blossoms in spring)
- Opuntia acanthocarpa, buckhorn cholla (branches resemble antlers of a deer)
- Opuntia echinocarpa, silver or golden cholla (depending on color of the spines)
- Opuntia phaeacantha, desert prickly pear (fruit is important food source for animals)
- Purshia tridentata, buckbrush, antelope bitterbrush (Rosaceae family)
- Prunus fremontii, desert apricot
- Prunus fasciculata, desert almond (commonly infested with tent caterpillars of Malacosoma spp.)
- Prunus ilicifolia, holly-leaf cherry
- Quercus cornelius-mulleri, desert scrub oak or Muller's oak
- Rhus ovata, sugar bush
- Simmondsia chinensis, jojoba
- Yucca schidigera, Mojave yucca
- Hesperoyucca whipplei (syn. Yucca whipplei), foothill yucca – our lord's candle.
Transmontane chaparral animals
There is overlap of animals with those of the adjacent desert and pinyon-juniper communities.[11]
- Canis latrans, coyote
- Lynx rufus, bobcat
- Neotomasp., desert pack rat
- Odocoileus hemionus, mule deer
- Peromyscus truei, pinyon mouse
- Puma concolor, mountain lion
- Stagmomantis californica, California mantis
Fire
Chaparral is a coastal biome with hot, dry summers and mild, rainy winters. The chaparral area receives about 38–100 cm (15–39 in) of precipitation a year. This makes the chaparral most vulnerable to fire in the late summer and fall.
The chaparral ecosystem as a whole is adapted to be able to recover from naturally infrequent, high-intensity fire (fires occurring between 30 and 150 years or more apart); indeed, chaparral regions are known culturally and historically for their impressive fires. (This does create a conflict with human development adjacent to and expanding into chaparral systems.) Additionally, Native Americans burned chaparral near villages on the coastal plain to promote plant species for textiles and food.
Plants that are long-lived in the seed bank or serotinous with induced germination after fire include chamise, Ceanothus, and fiddleneck. Some chaparral plant communities may grow so dense and tall that it becomes difficult for large animals and humans to penetrate, but may be teeming with smaller fauna in the understory. The seeds of many chaparral plant species are stimulated to germinate by some fire cue (heat or the chemicals from smoke or charred wood).[13] During the time shortly after a fire, chaparral communities may contain soft-leaved herbaceous, fire following annual wildflowers and short-lived perennials that dominate the community for the first few years – until the burl resprouts and seedlings of chaparral shrub species create a mature, dense overstory. Seeds of annuals and shrubs lie dormant until the next fire creates the conditions needed for germination.
Several shrub species such as Ceanothus fix nitrogen, increasing the availability of nitrogen compounds in the soil.[14]
Because of the hot, dry conditions that exist in the California summer and fall, chaparral is one of the most fire-prone plant communities in North America. Some fires are caused by lightning, but these are usually during periods of high humidity and low winds and are easily controlled. Nearly all of the very large wildfires are caused by human activity during periods of hot, dry easterly Santa Ana winds. These human-caused fires are commonly ignited by power line failures, vehicle fires and collisions, sparks from machinery, arson, or campfires.
Threatened by high fire frequency
Though adapted to infrequent fires, chaparral plant communities can be eliminated by frequent fires. A high frequency of fire (less than 10-15 years apart) will result in the loss of obligate seeding shrub species such as Manzanita spp. This high frequency disallows seeder plants to reach their reproductive size before the next fire and the community shifts to a sprouter-dominance. If high frequency fires continue over time, obligate resprouting shrub species can also be eliminated by exhausting their energy reserves below-ground. Today, frequent accidental ignitions can convert chaparral from a native shrubland to non-native annual grassland and drastically reduce species diversity, especially under drought brought about by climate change.[15][16]
Wildfire debate
There are two older hypotheses relating to California chaparral fire regimes that caused considerable debate in the past within the fields of wildfire ecology and land management. Research over the past two decades have rejected these hypotheses:
- That older stands of chaparral become "decadent", thus implying that fire is necessary for the plants to remain healthy,[17]
- That wildfire suppression policies have allowed dead chaparral to accumulate unnaturally, creating ample fuel for large fires.[18]
The perspective that older chaparral is unhealthy or unproductive may have originated during the 1940s when studies were conducted measuring the amount of forage available to deer populations in chaparral stands.
The idea that older chaparral is responsible for causing large fires was originally proposed in the 1980s by comparing wildfires in
Large, infrequent, high-intensity wildfires are part of the natural fire regime for California chaparral.[29] Extreme weather conditions (low humidity, high temperature, high winds), drought, and low fuel moisture are the primary factors in determining how large a chaparral fire becomes.
See also
- California Chaparral Institute
- California chaparral and woodlands ecoregion
- Heath (habitat)
- Fire ecology
- Garrigue
- International Association of Wildland Fire
References
- ^ "chaparral". Dictionary.com Unabridged (Online). n.d.
- ^ ISBN 9780124095489.
- PMID 27391489.
- ^ "Discovering Rainforest Locations". California Academy of Sciences.
- ^ "The Biodiversity Hotspots_Conservation International". Archived from the original on 2007-07-14.
- ^ a b A Natural History of California, Allan A. Schoenerr, Figure 8.9 – 8.10, Table 8.2
- ^ a b County of San Diego Department of Planning and Land Use Multiple Species Conservation Program, "Archived copy" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 2010-11-06. Retrieved 2010-09-14.
{{cite web}}
: CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link) - ^ ISBN 978-0-520-06922-0
- ISBN 978-0-520-06922-0
- ^ Jordan, Shane (April 2022). "Disjunct chaparral relicts in the New York Mountains of Mojave National Preserve: a preliminary survey". 2022 Desert Symposium at Copper Mountain College. Retrieved 2024-03-01.
- ISBN 9781365453458.
- )
- ^ a b Parker, V. T. (2016). Mooney, H.; Zavaleta, E. (eds.). "Chaparral". Ecosystems of California. Oakland, CA: University of California Press: 479–507.
- JSTOR 2442555.
- PMID 17708216.
- S2CID 19688559.
- JSTOR 1942434.
- ^ S2CID 46485059.
- ^ Halsey, R.W. (2009). "Chaparral as a natural resource: changing the conversation about chaparral and fire" (PDF). Proceedings of the CNPS Conservation Conference: 82–86.
- ^ ISSN 1448-5516.
- ^ Hubbard, R.F. (1986). Stand Age and Growth Dynamics in Chamise Chaparral. San Diego: Master’s thesis, San Diego State University.
- JSTOR 41424817.
- JSTOR 41425064.
- ^ Haidinger, Tori L.; Keeley, Jon E. (1993). "Role of high fire frequency in destruction of mixed chaparral" (PDF). Madroño. 40: 141–147. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2016-04-14.
- ^ Zedler, P.H. (1995). Keeley, J.E.; Scott, T (eds.). "Fire frequency in southern California shrublands: biological effects and management options". Brushfires in California Wildlands: Ecology and Resource Management. Fairfield, WA: International Association of Wildland Fire: 101–112.
- ^ .
- ^ Hanson, C.T; Sherriff, R.L; Hutto, R.L.; DellaSala, D.A.; Veblen, T.T.; Baker, W.L. (2015). DellaSala, D.A.; Hanson, C.T. (eds.). The Ecological Importance of Mixed-Severity Fires: Nature's Phoenix. Amsterdam, Netherlands: Elsevier. pp. 3–22.
- ISSN 1540-9309.
- S2CID 55801393.
- ^ The Serengeti Rules documentary: example Serengeti/gnu
Bibliography
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- Halsey, R.W. 2008. Fire, Chaparral, and Survival in Southern California. Second Edition. Sunbelt Publications, San Diego, CA. 232 p.
- Hanes, T. L. 1971. Succession after fire in the chaparral of southern California. Ecol. Monographs 41: 27–52.
- Hubbard, R.F. 1986. Stand age and growth dynamics in chamise chaparral. Master's thesis, San Diego State University, San Diego, California.
- Keeley, J. E., C. J. Fotheringham, and M. Morais. 1999. Reexamining fire suppression impacts on brushland fire regimes. Science 284:1829–1832.
- Keeley, J.E. 1995. Future of California floristics and systematics: wildfire threats to the California flora. Madrono 42: 175–179.
- Keeley, J.E., A.H. Pfaff, and H.D. Stafford. 2005. Fire suppression impacts on postfire recovery of Sierra Nevada chaparral shrublands. International Journal of Wildland Fire 14: 255–265.
- Larigauderie, A., T.W. Hubbard, and J. Kummerow. 1990. Growth dynamics of two chaparral shrub species with time after fire. Madrono 37: 225–236.
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- Venturas, M. D., E. D. MacKinnon, H. L. Dario, A. L. Jacobsen, R. B. Pratt, and S. D. Davis. 2016. Chaparral shrub hydraulic traits, size, and life history types relate to species mortality during California's historic drought of 2014. PLoS ONE 11(7): p.e0159145.
- Zedler, P.H. 1995. Fire frequency in southern California shrublands: biological effects and management options, pp. 101–112 in J.E. Keeley and T. Scott (eds.), Brushfires in California wildlands: ecology and resource management. International Association of Wildland Fire, Fairfield, Wash.
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