Charles Edward Stuart
Charles Edward Stuart | |||||
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St Peter's Basilica, Vatican City | |||||
Spouse | |||||
Issue | Charlotte Stuart, Duchess of Albany (illegitimate) | ||||
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House | Stuart | ||||
Father | James Francis Edward Stuart | ||||
Mother | Maria Clementina Sobieska | ||||
Religion | Catholicism | ||||
Signature |
Charles Edward Louis John Sylvester Maria Casimir Stuart
Born in Rome to the exiled Stuart court, he spent much of his early and later life in Italy. In 1744, he travelled to France to take part in a planned invasion to restore the Stuart monarchy under his father. When the French fleet was partly wrecked by storms, Charles resolved to proceed to Scotland following discussion with leading Jacobites. This resulted in Charles landing by ship on the west coast of Scotland, leading to the Jacobite rising of 1745. The Jacobite forces under Charles initially achieved several victories in the field, including the Battle of Prestonpans in September 1745 and the Battle of Falkirk Muir in January 1746. However, by April 1746, Charles was defeated at Culloden, which effectively ended the Stuart cause. Although there were subsequent attempts such as a planned French invasion in 1759, Charles was unable to restore the Stuart monarchy.[4]
With the Jacobite cause lost, Charles spent the remainder of his life on the continent, except for one secret visit to London.[5] On his return, Charles lived briefly in France before he was exiled in 1748 under the terms of the Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle. Charles eventually returned to Italy, where he spent much of his later life living in Florence and Rome. He had a number of mistresses before marrying Princess Louise of Stolberg-Gedern in 1772. In his later life, Charles's health declined greatly and he was said to be an alcoholic. However, his escapades during the 1745 and 1746 uprising, as well as his escape from Scotland, led to his portrayal as a romantic figure of heroic failure.[6][7] His life and the once possible prospects of a restored Stuart monarchy have left an enduring historical legend that continues to have a legacy today.[8][7]
Early life
Childhood and education: 1720–1734
Charles was born in the
Charles was the son of the Old Pretender,
Charles was said to have suffered from weak legs at an early age, possibly as a result of rickets.[16][17] However, Charles was instructed in a regime of exercise and dancing to help improve his constitution, which strengthened his legs by later years.[16] Charles spent much of his early childhood in Rome and Bologna in the company of a small retinue and a close but often argumentative family.[18] His brother Henry Benedict Stuart was born 5 years later on 6 March 1725.[19] His mother and father were regularly at disagreement with each other,[20] leading to one notable incident in which Clementina left the palace shortly after Henry's birth in 1725 and moved to a convent, not returning until 1727.[21][22][23] As the legitimate heirs to the thrones of England, Scotland, and Ireland—according to the Jacobite succession, James and his household lived with a sense of pride, and staunchly believed in the divine right of kings.[12] Charles spent much of his early years in the company of older men, several of which acted as his tutors.[21] Charles Edward's governor was the Protestant James Murray, Jacobite Earl of Dunbar.[18] While the Pope had raised initial concerns over Charles's religious education under a Protestant governor, James agreed that Charles would be raised as a Catholic.[24] Among his tutors were the Chevalier Ramsay,[25] Sir Thomas Sheridan[25] and Father Vinceguerra, a Catholic priest.[26] He quickly became conversant in English, French and Italian,[27] although it was said that he never fully mastered any language and was partially illiterate.[25] During his childhood, he was reported to enjoy hunting, horsemanship, a form of golf, music and dancing.[28]
Travels in Europe: 1734–1745
In 1734, his cousin, the Duke of Liria, who was proceeding to join Don Carlos in his struggle for the crown of Naples, passed through Rome.[29] He offered to take Charles on his expedition, and the boy of thirteen was appointed general of artillery by Don Carlos.[30] On 30 July 1734, he departed Rome with an escort and proceeded with his cousin to the French and Spanish siege of Gaeta, his first exposure to war.[30][31] While at Gaeta, he observed the final stages of the siege and was said to have come under fire in the trenches of the siegeworks.[32] He returned to Rome in late 1734.[32] In January 1735, shortly after his fourteenth birthday, Charles's mother Clementina died of scurvy.[33] She had been in a poor state of declining health for many months; however, Charles was said to have been deeply distressed after his mother passed.[34]
As Charles grew older, he was introduced by his father and the Pope to Italian society.[35] In 1737, James sent his son on a tour through major Italian cities to complete his education as a prince and man of the world.[35] Charles proceeded to visit Genoa, Florence, Parma, Bologna and Venice.[35][36] The Italian tour was a shock for Charles, who had believed he would be welcomed as a royal prince.[35] Instead, most European courts would only receive him as the "Duke of Albany" (an historic title adopted by Scottish royals in the 14th century).[37] Despite being Catholic, many European states wished to avoid antagonising Britain, the only exception being Venice.[35]
By the time he had reached 20, he had become a notable member of upper-class society in Rome and had developed a fondness for alcohol and fine clothes, often in excess of his allowance.[38] He had become increasingly distant from his brother due to Henry's devotion to prayer and religious study.[39] His father continued to rely on foreign aid in his attempts to restore himself to the British and Irish thrones.[40] However, Charles became increasingly supportive of the idea of rebellion unassisted by invasion or by support of any kind from abroad.[27] On 23 December 1743, owing to his limited ability to travel to Britain, James named his son Charles prince regent, giving him the authority to act in his name.[40]
In January 1744, his father believed he had managed to obtain the de facto renewed support of the French government.[41] Following this mistaken belief, Charles Edward travelled covertly to France from Rome, initially under the guise of a hunting party.[42][43] However, neither the French Government nor King Louis XV had officially invited Charles.[44] Nevertheless, by February, the French government had agreed to support a planned invasion of England, hoping to remove British forces from the War of the Austrian Succession.[45] Charles then travelled to Dunkirk with the purpose of accompanying a French Army across to England.[46] The invasion never materialised, as the French fleet was scattered by a storm in the spring equinox, losing 11 ships.[47] By the time it regrouped, the British fleet realised the diversion that had deceived them and resumed their position in the Channel.[48][49]
After the failure of the planned invasion, Charles remained in France, staying at several places, including
1745 uprising
Preparations and journey to Scotland: 1745
In both Rome and Paris, Charles met numerous supporters of the Stuart cause; he was aware that there were Jacobite representatives in every key European court.[51] He had now taken a considerable share in correspondence and other actual work connected with the promotion of his own and his father's interests.[57] While in Paris and Soissons, Charles sought funding and support for the restoration of the monarchy.[58] Following conversations with Irish and Scottish exiles such as Sir Thomas Sheridan who assured him of the strength of the Jacobite movement in Scotland, as well as following receipt of a petition to Charles from Sir Hector Maclean on behalf of intervention, Charles resolved to launch an expedition to Scotland.[59] The ultimate aim was to instigate a rebellion that would place his father on the thrones of England, Scotland and Ireland.[60] To assist with funding the expedition, Charles borrowed some 180,000 livres from the Paris bankers John Waters and George Waters.[61][62] Part of these funds had been raised through support from loyalists in Britain such as Sir Henry Bedingfield of Oxburgh Hall.[63] As security for the loans, Charles was able to use the Sobieski crown jewels of his great-grandfather John III Sobieski, which had passed down to him through his mother.[62] He used these extensive funds to purchase weapons[51] and fit out the Elisabeth, an old man-of-war of 66 guns, and the Du Teillay (sometimes called Doutelle), a 16-gun privateer.[64]
Encouraged by the French victory in May 1745 at the
Early stages and victory at Prestonpans: 1745
Although several clan chiefs initially discouraged him, he gained the crucial support of
Charles's progress onto Edinburgh was helped by the action of the British leader,
Meanwhile, Sir John Cope had brought his forces by sea to Dunbar, a decision he would soon regret.[86] On 20 September, Charles mustered and joined his forces at Duddingston.[87] On 21 September, Charles and his forces defeated Cope's army, the only government army in Scotland, at the Battle of Prestonpans.[57][e] Charles was said to have been only 50 paces from the front-line of the battle,[88] and he later expressed remorse that the victory involved killing his own subjects.[89] It was reported during the battle that Charles and Lord Murray had argued with each other over the disposition of forces.[90] The historian Hugh Douglas argues this was to result in an ever worsening relationship between the two that would culminate with ultimate defeat later at Culloden.[90]
Invasion of England: 1745–1746
Morale was high following the battle at Prestonpans, and Charles returned to Edinburgh, holding court at
At Derby, despite Charles's objections, his council at Exeter House decided to return to Scotland given the lack of English Jacobite and French support, as well as rumours that large government forces were being amassed.[101][102] Charles admitted that he had not heard from the English Jacobites since leaving France despite claiming the contrary; this caused his relationship with some of the Scots to become irretrievably damaged.[101] On 6 December, the Jacobites and Charles left Derby and began their march north back to Scotland.[103] Charles's route north was the same as the one that he had taken on the journey south.[104] He returned to Manchester on 9 December and after some light resistance from the local population, Charles demanded £5,000 from the town, eventually receiving £2,500 in payment.[105] Charles then proceeded on through Preston, Lancaster and Kendal, until the Jacobite forces eventually met the government forces at Clifton in Cumbria on 18 December.[106] The Jacobite forces won the Clifton Moor Skirmish allowing them to continue north through Carlisle and back into Scotland.[106]
Charles and his forces reached Glasgow on 26 December where they rested until 3 January 1746.[107] The decision was then made to lay siege to Stirling and Stirling Castle.[108] However, while the town surrendered immediately, the castle's artillery proved too strong for the Jacobite forces to approach and seize the castle.[108] Government forces also attempted a relief of the siege, which resulted in a victory for Charles in the ensuing Battle of Falkirk Muir in January 1746.[109][110] A failure to take the castle, however, resulted in the abandonment of the siege and the Jacobite forces moving northward to Crieff, then Inverness.[108] With a halt in operations until the weather improved, Charles forces then rested at Inverness,[57] but they were later pursued by the forces of George II's son Prince William, Duke of Cumberland.[111]
Culloden and return to France: 1746
Government forces caught up with Charles and his army at the ensuing
After the defeat, Murray managed to lead a group of Jacobites to Ruthven, intending to continue the fight.[117] Charles thought that he was betrayed, however, and decided to abandon the Jacobite cause.[f] Some 20 miles from the battlefield, Charles rested briefly at Gorthleck, the home of his dubious supporter Lord Lovat, before retreating to Invergarry Castle, by way of Fort Augustus, on 16 April.[118][119] Charles then hid in the moors of the Highlands of Scotland, before making a flight to the Hebrides, always barely ahead of the government forces.[120] Many Highlanders aided him during his escape, and none of them betrayed him for the £30,000 reward.[121][122] Charles was assisted by supporters such as the pilot Donald Macleod of Galtrigill and Captain Con O'Neill, who took him to Benbecula.[123] From 16 April until 28 June, Charles travelled through Benbecula, South Uist, North Uist, Harris, and the Isle of Lewis.[124] On 28 June, Charles was aided by Flora MacDonald, who helped him sail to the Isle of Skye by taking him in a boat disguised as her maid "Betty Burke".[125][126][127] Charles remained on Skye until July, when he then crossed back to the mainland.[124] With the aid of a few loyal servants and local supporters, Charles hid from government forces in the western Grampian Mountains for several weeks.[128] He ultimately evaded capture and on 19 September, he left the country aboard the French frigate L'Heureux, commanded by Richard Warren.[129][130] The Prince's Cairn marks the traditional spot on the shores of Loch nan Uamh in Lochaber from which he made his final departure from Scotland.[129]
Later life
Life in Europe: 1746–1766
Charles landed back in France on 10 October [
While back in France, Charles had numerous mistresses.[134][135] He had a relationship with his first cousin Marie Louise de La Tour d'Auvergne, wife of Jules, Prince of Guéméné, that resulted in a short-lived son named Charles (born 28 July 1748, died 18 January 1749).[136] In December 1748, he was arrested by the French authorities while attending the opera at the Théâtre du Palais-Royal.[137][138] Briefly imprisoned at the Château de Vincennes,[138] he was then expelled from France under the terms of the Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle that ended the War of the Austrian Succession.[139][140] He moved first to the Papal territory at Avignon, and then in 1749 to Lunéville in the Duchy of Lorraine.[141][g] In the following years, he was reported to have made several visits in secret to Paris, but was not discovered by the French authorities.[142]
After his defeat, Charles indicated to the remaining supporters of the Jacobite cause in England that, accepting the impossibility of his recovering the English and Scottish crowns while he remained a Catholic, he was willing to commit himself to reigning as a Protestant.[143] Accordingly, he visited London incognito in 1750, staying for several weeks primarily at the Essex Street London residence of Lady Primrose, the widow of the 3rd Viscount of Primrose.[144][145] While in London, Charles abjured the Catholic faith[146] and conformed to the Protestant faith by receiving Anglican communion, likely at one of the remaining non-juring chapels.[146] Bishop Robert Gordon, a staunch Jacobite whose house in Theobald's Row was one of Charles's safe-houses for the visit, is the most likely to have celebrated the communion. [147] A chapel in Gray's Inn, used by the nonjurors, was suggested as the venue as early as 1788.[h] This rebuts David Hume's suggestion that it took place at a church in the Strand.[148] and biographers such as Kybett who have suggested St Martin-in-the-Fields.[146]
Charles lived for several years in exile with his Scottish mistress, Clementina Walkinshaw (later known as Countess von Alberstrof), whom he met, and may have begun a relationship with, during the 1745 rebellion.[149] She was suspected by many of Charles's supporters of being a spy planted by the Hanoverian government of Great Britain.[150] On 29 October 1753, the couple had a daughter, Charlotte.[151][152][153] Charles's inability to cope with the collapse of the Jacobite cause led to his problem with alcohol, and mother and daughter separated from Charles with his father James's assistance.[154][i]
In 1759, at the height of the
Pretender: 1766–1788
Charles's father died on 1 January 1766.[159] Pope Clement XI had recognised James as King of England, Scotland, and Ireland as "James III and VIII", but over 40 years later Pope Clement XIII did not give Charles the same recognition as "Charles III".[160] However, on 23 January, with the Pope's permission, Charles moved into the Palazzo Muti, which his father had lived in for over 40 years.[161] Charles wrote to both the Kings of France and Spain on his accession, but recognition as King Charles III was not granted by either monarch.[162] Charles returned to his social life in Rome, making visits to the Pope and indulging in pastimes such as hunting, shooting, balls, concerts, operas and plays. One notable occasion, was when he met and heard Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart perform at the Chigi Palace on 6 April.[163] However, he would periodically shut himself away in his rooms, and was said to have formed no new friendships in his later life.[163] He made visits to Florence and Pisa in 1770, where he took to the waters at the city's thermal baths.[164] Charles returned to Paris in early 1771 with the permission of the French authorities under the Duc de Choiseul, who once again wished to discuss the possibility of a Jacobite invasion.[164] However, on the day of the meeting, Charles was reported to be so intoxicated that he was unable to speak coherently, so the discussions were abandoned.[164]
By the time Charles entered his 51st year, concern was raised by his Jacobite supporters and the French that he had not yet married, and that only his brother, a priest sworn to celibacy, remained as the only male heir.
They lived first in Rome and then moved to Florence in 1774, where he was provided with a residence by Prince Corsini, the Palazzo di San Clemente, now known as the Palazzo del Pretendente.[168] In Florence, he used the title "Count of Albany" as an alias, and his wife Louise was normally referred to as the "Countess of Albany".[j][169] Charles's health deteriorated in later life, and he was reported to have suffered from asthma, high blood pressure, swollen legs and ulcers.[168] In 1774, while in Florence, he suffered constantly from his illnesses, which required him to be carried by his servants to and from his carriage.[168] Charles was also known to be an alcoholic, a condition that worsened with age.[165][170]
Charles and Louise left Florence in 1777 and returned to Rome.[171] Their relationship had become increasingly quarrelsome.[172] One cause was said to be the speculation regarding Louise's adulterous relationships with the courtiers Carl Bonstetten and the Italian poet Count Vittorio Alfieri.[171][173] Another cause was stated to be Charles himself, who was reported as becoming increasingly irrational and drunk.[174] In November 1780, Louise formally left Charles.[174] After separating, she claimed that Charles had physically abused her.[175] This claim was generally believed by contemporaries.[173] The historian Douglas states that Charles had been drinking following Saint Andrew's Day celebrations, and after accusing Louise of infidelities, may have attempted to rape her, resulting in her screaming to the extent that the household servants intervened.[174] In the years that followed, the Pope awarded Louise half of Charles's papal pension, and Charles's international reputation was greatly damaged.[175] He was said to live an increasingly isolated and unhappy life, especially after his brother Henry agreed to house Louise at his estate.[176]
By 1783, Charles's health continued to decline, and for a time, he fell seriously ill such to the extent that he was given the
Death and burial
Charles died in Rome of a stroke on 30 January 1788, aged 67.[183] His brother the Cardinal Duke of York, who was present at the death, had the record read that he died on the morning of 31 January, as it was deemed unlucky to have him declared dead on the same date as the execution of his great-grandfather, King Charles I.[183][184] Charles's will left most of his estate to his heir, his daughter Charlotte.[185] There were a few exceptions, including some plate for his brother Henry, as well as some annuities for his servants.[185]
On his death, a cast of his face was made, and his body was embalmed and placed in a coffin of cypress wood.
Cultural depictions
Charles has been depicted in painting since the 18th century, much of it belonging to Romanticism and later Victorian representations of the Jacobites.[191][192] Charles's departure from Scotland in 1746 is depicted in an engraving of a painting by Francis William Topham, Prince Charles Edward, bidding adieu to his friends.[l] In 1892, John Pettie painted Charles entering the Ballroom at Holyroodhouse. Charles and the Jacobites would also be depicted in numerous drawings, prints and on objects, his likeness and coat of arms even depicted on objects such as engraved drinking glasses.[194][195]
Charles has been depicted on stage as well as in film and television. He was portrayed by David Niven in the 1948 semi-biographical film Bonnie Prince Charlie.[196] Charles was also portrayed by Andrew Gower in the historical dramatic series Outlander, based upon Diana Gabaldon's book series.[197] His life has formed a component of numerous historical plays, including For Bonnie Prince Charlie (1897), the Young Pretender (1996) and The Glory (2000).[198][199][200]
The legacy of Charles Stuart and his role in Jacobitism has also influenced songs and music.
Arms
During his pretence as Prince of Wales, Charles claimed a coat of arms consisting of those of the kingdom, differenced by a label argent of three points.[207]
Ancestry
Ancestors of Charles Edward Stuart | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
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Notes
- ^ Charles may have also been given the middle name Severino.[2]
- ^ Charles was born in Rome under the Gregorian calendar, however British sources often cite his date of birth as 20 December 1720, as Britain did not switch to the Gregorian calendar until 1752.
- ^ The name was later adopted by Charles III, son of Elizabeth II.[3]
- ^ Charles would stay again at Callendar House before the Battle of Falkirk Muir. The Earl however would later be executed for his support of Charles in August 1746.
- Johnnie Cope".
- ^ A first-hand account of these events is given by James, the Chevalier de Johnstone in his "Memoir of the Rebellion 1745–1746".
- ^ The Duchy was annexed to France in 1766.
- ^ Reported in the Gentleman's Magazine, 1788.
- ^ Charlotte went on to have three illegitimate children with Ferdinand, an ecclesiastical member of the Rohan family. Their only son was Charles Edward Stuart, Count Roehenstart.
- ^ The title is frequently used for him in European publications
- ^ John Hay Allen and Charles Manning Allen, later known as John Sobieski Stuart and Charles Edward Stuart, claimed, without any foundation, that their father, Thomas Allen, was a legitimate son of Charles and Louise.[180]
- ^ published in Fisher's Drawing Room Scrap Book, 1839, with a poetical illustration by Letitia Elizabeth Landon.[193]
References
- ^ a b c d e Kybett 1988, p. 20.
- ^ Additional Manuscripts, British Library, 30,090, quoted in Frank McLynn, Charles Edward Stuart: A Tragedy in Many Acts (London: Routledge, 1988), 8.
- ^ "Britain's new monarch to be known as King Charles III". Reuters. Reuters. 8 September 2022. Retrieved 8 September 2022.
- ^ McLynn 1988, p. 449.
- ^ Aronson 1979, p. 305.
- ^ McLynn 1988, p. 8.
- ^ a b Preston 1995, p. 13–19.
- ^ Douglas 1975, p. x.
- ^ a b "Charles Edward Stuart – Jacobites, Enlightenment and the Clearances – Scotland's History". Archived from the original on 10 November 2015.
- ^ a b Pininski 2010, p. 22.
- ^ a b c Douglas 1975, p. 25.
- ^ a b "Bonnie Prince Charlie – the Jacobite Trail".
- ^ a b Kybett 1988, p. 6.
- ^ Kybett 1988, p. 8.
- ^ Douglas 1975, p. 16.
- ^ a b Kybett 1988, p. 30.
- ^ Douglas 1975, p. 29.
- ^ a b Kybett 1988, p. 28.
- ^ Pininski 2010, p. 23.
- ^ Douglas 1975, p. 30.
- ^ a b Kybett 1988, p. 32.
- ^ Douglas 1975, p. 37.
- ^ Pininski 2010, p. 25.
- ^ Kybett 1988, p. 33.
- ^ a b c Kybett 1988, p. 31.
- ^ Kybett 1988, p. 37.
- ^ a b Vaughan 1911, p. 940.
- ^ Pininski 2010, p. 26.
- ^ Douglas 1975, p. 40.
- ^ a b Johnston 2010, p. 28.
- ^ Kybett 1988, p. 38.
- ^ a b Johnston 2010, p. 29.
- ^ Kybett 1988, p. 40.
- ^ Johnston 2010, p. 24.
- ^ a b c d e Kybett 1988, p. 45.
- ^ Preston 1995, p. 30.
- ^ Douglas 1975, p. 47.
- ^ Kybett 1988, p. 47.
- ^ Kybett 1988, p. 60.
- ^ a b Douglas 1975, p. 53.
- ^ Kybett 1988, p. 76.
- ^ Kybett 1988, p. 80.
- ^ Douglas 1975, p. 56.
- ^ Kybett 1988, p. xvii.
- ^ Kybett 1988, p. 89.
- ^ Kybett 1988, p. 90.
- ^ Kybett 1988, p. 92.
- ^ Longmate p. 149
- ^ Douglas 1975, p. 58.
- ^ Kybett 1988, p. 97.
- ^ a b c d Douglas 1975, p. 63.
- ^ Kybett 1988, p. 98.
- ^ Kybett 1988, p. 100.
- ^ Kybett 1988, p. 101.
- ^ a b Kybett 1988, p. 107.
- ^ Kybett 1988, p. 108.
- ^ a b c d e Vaughan 1911, p. 941.
- ^ Kybett 1988, p. 103.
- ^ Kybett 1988, p. 104.
- ^ Douglas 1975, p. 65.
- ^ Kybett 1988, p. 112.
- ^ a b Preston 1995, p. 44.
- ^ "Sir Henry Bedingfield: National Trust unmasks landowner who spied for Bonnie Prince Charlie". The Times. Retrieved 21 August 2022.
- ^ Kybett 1988, p. 115.
- ^ Kybett 1988, p. 116.
- ^ a b c d Kybett 1988, p. 117.
- ^ a b McLynn 1988, p. 105.
- ^ Douglas 1975, p. 74.
- ^ Riding 2016, pp. 83–84.
- ^ Stewart 2001, pp. 152–153.
- ^ Oestman, Olivia (19 April 2019). "The Second Jacobite Rebellion of 1745: Triumph and Tragedy for Scotland" (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on 8 November 2021. Retrieved 8 November 2021.
- ^ Riding 2016, pp. 465–467.
- ^ Douglas 1975, p. 77.
- ^ Pininski 2010, p. 32.
- ^ Douglas 1975, p. 79.
- ^ a b Preston 1995, p. 70.
- ^ Preston 1995, p. 73.
- ^ a b Douglas 1975, p. 87.
- ^ Riding 2016, pp. 123–125.
- ^ Douglas 1975, p. 90.
- ^ Norie 1907, p. 54.
- ^ Douglas 1975, p. 111.
- ^ "Charles Edward, the Young Pretender". Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc. 27 December 2023.
- ^ "Lost Bonnie Prince Charlie portrait found in Scotland". BBC News. 22 February 2014. Archived from the original on 21 February 2014. Retrieved 23 February 2014.
- ^ Ferguson, Brian (30 March 2016). "Unique Bonnie Prince Charlie painting secured for Scotland". Edinburgh News. Retrieved 15 February 2020.
- ^ Douglas 1975, p. 98.
- ^ Preston 1995, p. 86.
- ^ Douglas 1975, p. 103.
- ^ Douglas 1975, p. 105.
- ^ a b Douglas 1975, p. 99.
- ^ Douglas 1975, p. 112.
- ^ Riding 2016, p. 185.
- ^ Elcho 1907, p. 289.
- ^ Douglas 1975, p. 119.
- ^ Riding 2016, pp. 175–176.
- ^ a b c Douglas 1975, p. 127.
- ^ Preston 1995, p. 125.
- ^ Preston 1995, p. 126.
- ^ Preston 1995, p. 127.
- ^ Preston 1995, p. 131.
- ^ a b Riding 2016, pp. 299–300.
- ^ Riding 2016, pp. 304–305.
- ^ Douglas 1975, p. 130.
- ^ Douglas 1975, p. 132.
- ^ Douglas 1975, p. 133.
- ^ a b Douglas 1975, p. 135-136.
- ^ Pininski 2010, p. 41.
- ^ a b c Pininski 2010, p. 42.
- ^ Riding 2016, pp. 209–216.
- ^ Riding 2016, pp. 328–329.
- ^ Riding 2016, pp. 377–378.
- ^ "Battle of Culloden (showing Duke of Cumberland)". National Galleries of Scotland. Retrieved 8 November 2021.
- ^ Douglas 1975, p. 160.
- ^ a b c d Douglas 1975, p. 162.
- ^ a b Douglas 1975, p. 163.
- ^ Riding 2016, p. 427.
- ^ Douglas 1975, p. 165.
- ^ Preston 1995, p. 201.
- ^ Blaikie, W B. "Prince Charles Edward Stuart Itinerary and Map (Supplement to the Lyon in Mourning)". Scottish History Society. XXIII 1897: 46 – via National Library of Scotland.
- ^ Douglas 1975, p. 170.
- ^ McLynn 1988, p. 239.
- ^ Michael Hook and Walter Ross, The 'Forty-Five. The Last Jacobite Rebellion (Edinburgh: HMSO, The National Library of Scotland, 1995), p. 27
- ^ Burke, Sir Bernard. A Selection of Arms Authorised by the Laws of Heraldry. p. 113.
- ^ a b Douglas 1975, p. 169.
- ^ McLynn 1988, p. 233.
- ^ "Charles Edward Stewart: The Young Pretender". The Scotsman. UK. Archived from the original on 25 November 2007. Retrieved 5 May 2010.
- ^ Queen Anne and the 1707 Act of Union Archived 14 February 2007 at the Wayback Machine ALBA – The Escape of the Young Pretender
- ^ Douglas 1975, p. 192.
- ^ a b Douglas 1975, p. 196.
- ^ Preston 1995, p. 226.
- ^ a b c Douglas 1975, p. 200.
- ^ a b Douglas 1975, p. 201.
- ^ Douglas 1975, p. 203.
- ^ Douglas 1975, p. 211.
- ^ Bongie 1986, p. 1.
- ^ Bongie 1986, p. 2.
- ^ Pininski 2010, p. 61.
- ^ a b Kaiser 1997, p. 365.
- ^ McLynn 1985, p. 35.
- ^ Douglas 1975, p. 210.
- ^ Pininski 2010, p. 63.
- ^ Pininski 2010, p. 65.
- ^ Aronson 1979, p. 307.
- The National Trust. Retrieved 21 August 2022.
- ^ Kybett 1988, p. 267.
- ^ a b c Kybett 1988, p. 268.
- doi:10.1093/ref:odnb/105934. (Subscription or UK public library membershiprequired.)
- ^ Royal Stuart Journal Number 1, 2009
- ^ Pininski 2010, p. 70.
- ^ McLynn 2005, p. 78.
- ^ Douglas 1975, p. 254.
- ^ Douglas 1975, p. 265.
- ^ McLynn 1988, p. 344.
- ^ McLynn 1985, p. 375.
- ^ McLynn 2005, p. 82.
- ^ a b McLynn 2005, p. 84.
- ^ McLynn 2005, p. 81.
- ^ McLynn 1988, p. 450.
- ^ Douglas 1975, p. 241.
- ^ Douglas 1975, p. 242.
- ^ Aronson 1979, p. 406.
- ^ Douglas 1975, p. 246.
- ^ a b Douglas 1975, p. 247.
- ^ a b c Douglas 1975, p. 249.
- ^ a b c d e Douglas 1975, p. 250.
- ^ a b c Pininski 2010, p. 81.
- ^ a b Douglas 1975, p. 251.
- ^ a b c Douglas 1975, p. 255.
- ^ Douglas 1975, p. 307.
- ^ Pininski 2010, p. 80.
- ^ a b Douglas 1975, p. 257.
- ^ Douglas 1975, p. 256.
- ^ a b Mayne, Ethel Colburn (6 May 1909). Enchanters of Men (Second ed.). London: Methuen & Co. p. 206. Retrieved 28 May 2016.
- ^ a b c Douglas 1975, p. 258.
- ^ a b Douglas 1975, p. 260.
- ^ a b c Douglas 1975, p. 262.
- ^ Douglas 1975, p. 122.
- ^ Aronson 1979, p. 353.
- ^ Vaughan 1911, p. 942.
- ISBN 9780838754955. Retrieved 19 August 2019.
- ^ a b Douglas 1975, p. 263.
- ^ a b Douglas 1975, p. 267.
- ^ a b Kybett 1988, p. 311.
- ^ Aronson 1979, p. 361.
- ^ a b c d Douglas 1975, p. 269.
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- Johnston, Arran (2010). Valour does not wait. The rise and fall of Charles Edward Stuart. Prestonpans: Prestoungrange University Press. ISBN 978-0850111248.
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External links
- Portraits of Prince Charles Edward Stuart at the National Portrait Gallery, London
- Prince Charles Edward Stuart at the National Galleries of Scotland
- The Jacobite Rebellion, BBC Radio 4 discussion with Murray Pittock, Stana Nenadic & Allan Macinnes (In Our Time, 8 May 2003).
- Prince Charles Edward. by Francis William Topham, engraved for Fisher's Drawing Room Scrap Book, 1839 with a poetical illustration by Letitia Elizabeth Landon.