Cheongsam
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Type | Dress / female outwear |
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Material | Diverse, such as silk, silk-like material, cotton[1] |
Place of origin | China |
Introduced | 20th century |
Cheongsam | ||
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Tâi-lô | kî-phâu |
Cheongsam (
Terminology
As English loanwords, both "cheongsam" and "qipao" describe the same type of body-hugging dress worn by Chinese women, and the words could be used interchangeably.[5]
The term cheongsam is a
The word qipao (keipo), which literally means "Bannerman robe" and originally referred to a loose-fitting, trapezoidal-cut garment worn by both Manchu men and women, became a more formal term for the female chèuhngsāam. Usage of the term "cheongsam" in Western countries mostly followed the original Cantonese meaning and applies to the dress worn by women only.[6]
Design and construction
The design of the cheongsam has evolved with time;[7] and there are now a various styles of cheongsam.[8] However, after decades of development, the design of cheongsam itself can be roughly categorized into the Beijing style, the Shanghai style, and the Hong Kong style.
General characteristics and features
The cheongsam is typically a tight-fitting dress, with a pair of high side slits above the knee-level.[7] The length of the cheongsam can vary; it can be either long or short.[8] It is more often seen with short sleeves; however, it can also be sleeveless.[7]
Collars and neckline
It is typically found with the
Fasteners and closures
The fasteners uses traditional Chinese knotting craftwork with the use of the pankou fastening and Chinese button knot.[7]
Edges and piping
The cheongsam is typically edged with piping, especially at the collar and the closure.[7] There are four traditional piping techniques used in the making of the cheongsam: gun (滚; 'roll') which is a narrow strips of fabric roll around the raw edge of the garment and is the most commonly used nowadays, xiang (镶) which is broad edging typically found in Manchu clothing of the Qing dynasty and the early cheongsam and is now quite rare, qian (嵌) is a very narrow strip of fabric which is even narrower than the gun, and dang (宕) is a specific type of xiang technique which uses a narrow strip of fabric which is stitched on the dress.[9]
It is also typical for the qian and the gun to be used together on the same dress creating a double-edged look; this technique is known as yigun yiqian (一滚一嵌; 'one gun one qian').[9] Other double-edged piping technique include “two-gun-one-qian” and the “two-gun-two-qian”.[9] The dang can also be combined with the gun; in this combination, the dang and the gun would be made of the same width and colour of fabric but they would run parallel to each other about two to five centimeters away from each other.[9]
Fabric and textile
Different materials can be used in the making of the cheongsam, such as wool, silk (including silk floss, damask, brocade, satin), or silk-like materials.[7][8][10] The cheongsam can also be unlined or interlined.[8] The fabric of the cheongsam can decorated with a diversity of decorative motifs, which can be embroidered on the dress.[7]
Main styles
The Beijing-style cheongsam originated in Beijing[10] and is fairly traditional and conservative.[11] It is typically handmade.[12] It maintains the traditional straight and A-line silhouette which flattens the curves of the female figure; embroidery and elaborate adornments are considered desirable. It is also characterized by its wide piping.[11] Therefore, the Beijing-style cheongsam expresses the beauty of Chinese culture in its style; it gives the wearer a reserved, concise, gorgeous, and dignified appearance.[10] Although it appears to use simple lines, the production process is complex.[12] The pankou fasteners can sometimes take several days to create, typically requiring twenty-six procedures of silk processing to be turning into silk strips which would be appropriate in the making of the fasteners of various patterns by skilled artisans.[12]
The Shanghai-style Cheongsam originated in Shanghai and is a popular and dominant style.[11] The Shanghai-style Cheongsam, especially, conveyed progressive messages of female body emancipation from the 1930s to 1940s; it also came to symbolize the idea of modernity in "pursuing health, fashion, and natural beauty".[13] As a result, to deliberately create a more figure-hugging silhouette and to focus on showing off the natural curve of the female body, many elements of Western tailoring techniques can be found in the Shanghai-style cheongsam, including curved cutting, waist darts.[11] This act of showing the female body was a physical expression of the changes in the identities of Chinese women and their rebellion against the idealized womanhood as indicated in the Confucian ideology.[13] It also features high side slits and high collar.[10] The collars can be lapel collars, water drop collars, and lotus leaf collars; the shape of the sleeves are also diverse.[10] It also uses lighter materials and is less elaborate embroidery or adornments; the piping is very narrow.[11]
The Jiangnan-style cheongsam, also known as Su-style cheongsam, originated in the Jiangnan Water town. This style of cheongsam expresses the cultural characteristics of the water town in Jiangnan and also creates a fusion between the beauty of Chinese calligraphy and Chinese painting, incorporating the hand-painting art of the Wumen School of Painting. It is characterized by the sophisticated neckline and embroidered patterns on the edges of the cuff. The dress is also embroidered with rich pattern motifs which tend to be floral, e.g. plum, orchid, bamboo, chrysanthemum, peonies, and roses. The fabrics used tend to be high-quality soft satin and plain crepe satin, etc.[10]
History
Background
The
The type of qizhuang that both men and women typically wore consisted of long robes, which can be referred to as the Manchu changpao and also categorized under the broad category of changpao (Chinese: 长袍; Chinese: 長袍; lit. 'long robe') or changshan (simplified Chinese: 长衫; traditional Chinese: 長衫; lit. 'long shirt').[14]
Manchu men wore a changpao, which were designed for horseback riding, known as
On the other hand, some imperial Manchu women wore a changfu (常服), informal dress, which looked similar to the men's neitao known as the changfupao (常服袍).
Introduction of Manchu-style clothing
Throughout China's multicultural history, clothing has been shaped through an intermingling of primarily Han clothing styles, the Han Chinese being the dominant ethnicity, and the styles of various ethnic groups. Some examples include the standing collar of the cheongsam, which has been found in relics from the Ming dynasty, ruled by the Han Chinese, and was subsequently adopted in the Qing dynasty as Manchu clothing items. Manchu robes were initially collarless. The Manchu also adopted the right closure from the Han Chinese as they initially closed their robes on the left side.[citation needed]
Under the dynastic laws of transition from Ming to Qing, all Han Chinese were forced to adopt the Manchu male queue hairstyle and adopt Manchu clothing under the Tifayifu (剃发易服; 剃髮易服; tìfàyìfú) policy instead of being wearing the traditional Hanfu under the threat of death penalty. However, the order for ordinary non-Banner Han civilians to wear Manchu clothing was lifted, and only those Han who served as officials or scholars were required to wear them. Over time though, some Han civilian men voluntarily adopted the changshan. By the late Qing, not only officials and scholars, but a great many Han commoners wore Manchu-style male attire.[18][19] However, until 1911, the Manchu changpao was required clothing for Chinese men of a certain class.[20]
What is now known as the Chinese
For women, Manchu and Han systems of clothing coexisted.
Birth of the cheongsam
In the late 1910s, after the overthrow of the Qing dynasty and the founding of the Republic of China, women began to partake in the education system. They wore an early form of the cheongsam, which quickly became the regular outfit of urban women in metropolitan cities like Beijing and Shanghai. Cheongsam of the late 1910s and early 1920s had relatively loose cutting with long, wide sleeves.[24][25] One of the earliest cheongsams was A-line with wide three-quarter sleeves and would fall just below the knee level.[7]
Under the Western influences of wearing shorter dresses in 1928, the length of the cheongsam became shorter.[26] In 1929, the cheongsam was chosen by the Republic of China government to be one of the country's national dresses.[27]: 48 With the designation of "national dress", the Republic of China government also promulgated the new Clothing Regulations of 1929, which specified the cheongsam should be worn with trousers and be calf-length. However, even before the Clothing Regulations of 1929, women had already stopped wearing ku trousers in favor of silk stockings.[26] Chinese women held no respect to the rule, as it was seen as an attempt by the Republican government to control individual rights and woman's liberty.[28]
From the 1920s onwards, the cheongsam was quickly popularized by celebrities,
Further transformation
Starting from the early 1930s, there was a further transformation of the qipao as it became increasingly shorter, tighter, and body-hugging, with side slits that reached up to the thigh.[25][31] Moreover, numerous distinct cheongsams designs emerged, with experimental changes on fastenings, pipings, collars, fur-lined cuffs, various length of sleeves, or simply sleeveless.[25][32]
Consumer culture rose as Western and Chinese merchants cooperated to move towards early capitalism. People eagerly sought a more modernized dress style and transformed the old cheongsam to suit new tastes. Newer forms featured slender and tight-fitting pencil cuts and deep necks, which is different from the early cheongsam. High-class courtesans and celebrities in the city welcomed the tight-fitting cheongsam. It was at this time the word cheongsam became well known in English. In Shanghainese, it was first known as zansae for 'long dress', rendered in Mandarin as chángshān and in Cantonese as chèuhngsāam. Then, the spoken Cantonese renditions of 長衫 was borrowed into English as "cheongsam".[33]
Trousers had completely fallen out of use, replaced by different types of hosiery. High-heeled shoes were popularized in the Shanghai fashion scene in the 1930s. Stockings and High-heeled shoes became an essential part of the cheongsam fashion set, which spawned new side slits designs reaching the hip line, intended to display the hosiery and heels. As Western fashions evolved, so did the cheongsam design, introducing high-necked sleeveless dresses, bell-like sleeves, and the black lace frothing at the hem of a ball gown.[34] By the 1940s, cheongsam came in a wide variety of fabrics with an equal variety of accessories.[34]
In late 20th century
Cheongsams were worn by celebrities, societies, and students of prestigious missionary schools in the early 20th century.
In other Chinese communities, such as
Since the 1980s, with the trend of reevaluation of Chinese traditional culture, people in mainland China started to pay attention to the cheongsam again. The cheongsam is gaining popularity in films, beauty pageants, and fashion shows in both China and other countries all over the world. In 1984, the cheongsam was specified as the formal attire of female diplomatic agents by the People's Republic of China.
-
Daoguang Period
(1821–1850)Empress Xiaoshen -
-
Guangxu Period
(1875–1908)
Lady Heseri -
-
Republican Period
(1912–1949)Noble Consort Mingxian1937 -
-
Post-War Period
(1949-)
Modern Qipao 2016
Modern use
Workplace
Some airlines in Mainland China and Taiwan, such as
School uniform
Before World War II, it was customary for girl students who attended schools run by Western missionaries societies to wear cheongsam as their school uniforms; on the other hand, there were very few indigenous Chinese schools that were using the cheongsam as a school uniform.[35]: 247
A few primary schools and some secondary schools in Hong Kong, especially older schools established by Christian missionaries, use a plain-rimmed sky-blue cotton and/or dark blue velvet (for winter) cheongsam with the metal school badge right under the stand-up collar to be closed with a metal hook and eye as the official uniform for their female students. The schools which use this standard include True Light Girls' College, St. Paul's Co-educational College, Heep Yunn School, St. Stephen's Girls' College, Ying Wa Girls' School, etc. These cheongsams are usually straight, with no waist shaping, and the cheongsam hem must reach mid-thigh. The cheongsam fit closely to the neck, and the stiff collar is hooked closed, despite the tropical humid and hot weather. Although the skirts have short slits, they are too narrow to allow students to walk in long strides. The seams above the slits often split when walking and are repeatedly sewn. Many schools also require underskirts to be worn with the cheongsam. The underskirt is a white cotton full slip, hemmed slightly shorter than the cheongsam, and has slits at the sides like the cheongsam, although the slits are deeper. A white cotton undershirt is often worn underneath the cheongsam. The cheongsam's length, styling, color, and sleeve length vary between schools. Many students feel it is an ordeal, yet it is a visible manifestation of the strict discipline that is the hallmark of prestigious secondary schools in Hong Kong, and many students and their parents like that. Some rebellious students express dissatisfaction with this tradition by wearing their uniform with the stand-up collar intentionally left unhooked or hemmed above their knees. The Ying Wa and True Light Schools have sent questionnaires to their students about uniform reforms but have not altered their policies.[39] However, Madam Lau Kam Lung Secondary School of Miu Fat Buddhist Monastery ended their cheongsam uniform in 1990 after receiving suggestions from its student union.[40]
Festivities
Cheongsams are a popular outfit choice for festive seasons like Chinese New Year.[4] In countries with significant Chinese populations, such as Malaysia, Singapore, Hong Kong, and Taiwan, it is common for women to have new cheongsams tailored in preparation for the New Year.[4] Cheongsams are also popular outfits for older women on formal occasions or family reunions.[4] Upmarket fashion labels such as Shanghai Tang specialize in modern versions of the cheongsam as occasion wear.
Weddings
In Western
Lolita fashion
Some
On the international stage
In the 2008 Summer Olympics, the medal bearers wore cheongsam. Similar attire was worn by female members of the Swedish team and of the Spanish team in the opening ceremony, with the national colors.
For the 2012 Hong Kong Sevens tournament, sportswear brand Kukri Sports teamed up with Hong Kong lifestyle retail store G.O.D. to produce merchandising, which included traditional Chinese jackets and cheongsam-inspired ladies' polo shirts.[43][44][45]
Political stage
In contemporary China, the meaning of cheongsam has been revisited again. It now embodies an identity of being ethnic Chinese and thus is used for important diplomatic occasions.
Since 2013,
In November 2014, cheongsam was the official attire for the political leaders' wives in the 22nd APEC meeting in Beijing.
International fashion
With the growth of the Chinese economy, cheongsam has experienced a renewed popularity. Many Western designers have integrated elements of cheongsam into their fashion collections. French designer Pierre Cardin once said that cheongsam was his inspiration for many of his evening dress designs.[46] In many films and movies, cheongsam is used to make a fashion statement. The varied interpretations of this ethnic dress brings in debates of cultural appropriation and the designs being linked to Orientalism. In the 2011 movie One Day, Anne Hathaway wore a set of dark blue cheongsam as an evening dress.[citation needed] Many western stars such as Elizabeth Taylor, Grace Kelly, Nicole Kidman, Paris Hilton, Emma Watson, Deepika Padukone, and Celine Dion have also made public appearances wearing cheongsam.[citation needed]
Cultural and historical significance
The cheongsam became a national dress of the Republic of China,[47]: 277 along with the aoqun, a traditional clothing attire of the Han Chinese women.[48] It was eventually accepted by the People's Republic of China as a form of hanfu, thus becoming transnational and representative of a generic Chinese national identity rather than an ethnic or ancestral identity.[47]: 277
The cheongsam can be worn by people of all ages and at any season.[8] It is also used as a style Traditional Chinese wedding dress among many others. For overseas Chinese, the cheongsam has often used as a form of emblematic culture.[47]: 277
In the 1920s, the cheongsam was originally an embodiment of Chinese women's rebellion and a heroic gesture and a marker of Chinese feminism and Chinese women's emancipation.[13]
Roles in Chinese nationalism and women's liberation
The Republican period is the golden age of the cheongsam. In exploring the reasons behind its prevalence in Republic of China, many scholars relate it to the women's liberation movements. After the feudal Qing dynasty was overturned, Chinese feminists called for women's liberation from traditional roles. They led several movements against the Neo-Confucian gender segregation, including the termination of foot binding for women, cutting off long hair, which was conventionally symbolized as women's "oriental" beauty, and encouraging women to wear men's one-piece clothing, Changshan or "changpao".
"Changpao" was traditionally taken as men's patent throughout the long history from
It was the May Thirteenth Movement of 1925, where anti-Westernization demonstrations persisted throughout the country, that served as an important push for the qipao's institutionalization. The Republicans declared the qipao a formal dress in the Clothing Regulations of 1929. The dress was meant to assert the importance of nationalism by rejecting Western forms of dress. That being said, there were still strict rules regulating how the dress needed to be worn, including specifications about length, material, accessories, collar, buttons, and sleeves, but curiously enough, none of these were followed.[50]
From the start, there was no unifying style for the dress like the Republicans intended; Chinese women had no respect for the Clothing Regulations of 1929, which tried to control individuality. There were endless variations in style, with adaptations to length, material, hemlines, collars, fabrics, patterns, colors, and pairing accessories. It was worn by everyone from Shanghai socialites to students, housewives, and prostitutes.[28] The style of the qipao was often in tune with fashion cycles and was influenced by Western trends seen through women styling it with matching scarves, fur coats, and leather heels. Magazines such as LingLong also gave women access to dressmaking knowledge and normalized it for women to make their dresses in their style. The base form of the qipao is rather simple to sew, which makes it easily accessible and economical.
The style of cheongsam also varied due to Western influence. It changed from a wide and loose style to a more form-fitting and revealing cut, which put more emphasis on women's body lines. The length of the cheongsam was also reduced from the ankle reaching to above the knee.
The design of the cheongsam got various inventions like ruffled collars, bell-like sleeves, and black lace frothing. Starting from that, the priority of cheongsam moved from a political expression to an aesthetic and ornamental emphasis.
Intangible cultural heritage
Due to its long history dating back to the Manchu clothing of the early Qing dynasty, the Beijing-style cheongsam-making technique is listed as a city-level intangible cultural heritage.[12]
The Hongkong Cheongsam-making technique is unique due to its historical background, having incorporated both Eastern and Western clothing designs before giving the Hongkong-style cheongsam its distinctive looks.[51][52] In 2021, the Hong Kong cheongsam making technique was successfully listed on the fifth National List of Intangible Cultural Heritage.[51][52]
Authenticity as ethnic wear
In
In Suriname, the cheongsam is not only presented as being the quintessential Chinese dress but also as the authentic Chinese ethnic clothing; however, the Chinese ethnic clothing, which should have been used, is the shanku, consisting of a shan (jacket) and a pair of ku trousers, as it was the attire which was worn by the Hakka people who came in Suriname as indentured laborers and chain immigrants.[47]: 277 The use of cheongsam as a cultural marker of Chineseness can be thus perceived as ironic, and a cultural stereotype of Chineseness as the cheongsam is not associated with any specific ancestral clothing of Chinese immigrants.[47]: 277
In Indonesia, the cheongsam has experienced acculturation from Chinese culture and Indonesian culture, one of which is the batik-patterned cheongsam which has become the main cultural identity in Indonesia. In recent years, the trend of Chinese clothing combined with local elements has started to become popular. The euphoria of acculturating Chinese and Indonesian culture is driven by local Chinese citizens who want to show that they love their homeland. Cheongsam clothing made from batik is very attractive fashion, there are clothing models that are suitable to wear during Chinese New Year celebrations. Clothing that is an acculturation of Indonesian and Chinese culture is very suitable to complement the celebration.[55][56][57][58]
Appreciation and rejection in overseas Chinese community
The cheongsam was introduced in Canada after the early 1930s with the flow of Chinese immigrants.[59]: 83 However, the wearing the cheongsam is mixed amongst Canadians with Chinese heritage.[54]: 100 Some may be reluctant to wear it publicly due to their experiences of being part of a racialized group and/or due to self-loathing due to the experiences of racism and marginalization in various forms, such as physical attacks, ostracism, and bullying, the social pressure to integrate and/or the desire to assimilate in the dominant culture as a protective mechanism even at the expense of rejecting any aspects or association with Chinese culture, identity, and appearance in the dress.[54]: 100–110 [59]: 84 Others may wear the cheongsam as an attempt to reconnect with their Chinese heritage and/or to show appreciation to the dress.[54] Some may find themselves uncomfortable or feel alienation when wearing cheongsam due to the lack of self-identification with Chinese culture and Chinese identity.[54]: 103 [59]: 84
Controversies on origin
The cheongsam is generally considered to be adapted from the one-piece dress of Manchu women during the Qing dynasty which survived from the 1911 Revolution surviving the political changes and improved until it has become the traditional dress for Chinese women.[8] However, there has been considerable debate on the origin of the cheongsam in academic circles. The following are three common arguments on the origin of the cheongsam:
The first argument says that the cheongsam came directly from the clothing of the banner people when the Manchu ruled China during the Qing dynasty. This argument was prominently represented by Zhou Xibao (Chinese: 周锡保) in his work The History of Ancient Chinese Clothing and Ornaments.[60]
The second opinion holds that the cheongsam inherited some features of the chángpáo of Banner People in the Qing dynasty, but the true origin of the cheongsam dates back to a period between the Western Zhou dynasty (1046–771 BC) and the pre-Qin era, approximately two millennia before the Qing dynasty. According to Yuan Jieying's (Chinese: 袁杰英) book Chinese Cheongsam, the modern cheongsam[61] shares many similarities with the narrow-cut straight skirt that women wore in the Western Zhou dynasty.[62] And Chinese Professor Bao Minxin (Chinese: 包铭新) also pointed out in his book A Real Record of Modern Chinese Costume that the cheongsam originated from the ancient robe in the Han dynasty (206 BC-220 AD). The robe is a one-piece upper and lower connected long dress which was quite popular among ladies in Han.[63]
The third argument was raised by Bian Xiangyang (
Similar garments
The Vietnamese áo dài looks similar to the cheongsam as they both consist of a long robe with side splits on both sides of the robe with one of the main difference typically being the height of the side split.[65]
The áo dài was developed from the clothing worn in Chinese court but it could only be worn by the royalty originally.[66] The áo dài was derived from áo ngũ thân (lit. 'five-panel gown') which was a Nguyễn court fashion which drew strong influences from the civil and military official clothing practices used in China;[67] the áo dài also evolved from the early prototypes decreed by Nguyễn Phúc Khoát.[68]
In the 18th century, in an attempt to separate his domain from Tonkin ruled by his rival Trịnh clan and build an independent state, Lord Nguyễn Phúc Khoát (reigned 1738–1765) forced his subjects to wear Ming dynasty style Chinese clothing.[69] The ethnic Kinh robe (i.e. the traditional áo giao lĩnh, a type of crossed-collar robe, which was identical to the ones worn by the Han Chinese).[70] was, therefore, replaced by a robe with Chinese-style fasteners,[69] which was buttoned in the front,[71] and had an upright collar.[68] The skirt which was worn by the Vietnamese was also replaced by trousers under his rule.[68][69] This form of new fashion became the prototype of the áo dài; it was a form of áo ngũ thân which was invented by Lord Nguyễn Phúc Khoá; the áo ngũ thân also had 5 flaps instead of 4 (the 5th flap was small and was found under the front garment) and 5 buttons.[68][72] Another new form of fashion included a type of four-panel robe which was described by Lê Quý Đôn as an áo dài which was loose fitting similarly to the áo giao lãnh.[69] Under the rule of Emperor Minh Mang, two new forms of áo dài were created from the áo ngũ thân regulated by Nguyễn Phúc Khoát: the áo tứ thân, and the Huế-style áo dài which was created with five flaps.[68] The Huế-style áo dài represented royal court culture of the Huế and later developed influenced the modern áo dài.[68]
See also
Gallery
-
Empress Wanrong
-
Indonesian actress Aminah Cendrakasih in cheongsam
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Typical modern cheongsam with high-slit cuts reaching top of the thigh
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Typical modern cheongsam in short style above the knee
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A variant of qipao, taken at the Tokyo Game Show in Japan.
References
Citations
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: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link) CS1 maint: others (link - ^ OCLC 1109390790.)
{{cite book}}
: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link - ^ jawapos.com (2 February 2019). "Cheongsam Rasa Batik, Cantiknya Koleksi Imlek Peranakan Anne Avantie". jawapos.com (in Indonesian). Retrieved 12 February 2024.
- ^ jatim.viva.co.id (22 January 2023). "Desain Batik Keren Akulturasi Indonesia-Tionghoa, Hadirkan Nuansa Imlek". jatim.viva.co.id (in Indonesian). Retrieved 12 February 2024.
- ^ hypeabis.id (24 January 2023). "Melihat Tren Akulturasi Fesyen China dan Indonesia pada Imlek 2023". hypeabis.id (in Indonesian). Retrieved 12 February 2024.
- ^ thephrase.id (5 February 2024). "Inspirasi Batik Cheongsam untuk Rayakan Imlek". thephrase.id (in Indonesian). Retrieved 12 February 2024.
- ^ )
- ISBN 9787104003595.
- ^ "What is modern cheongsam " Archived 27 December 2019 at the Wayback Machine. Newhanfu.
- ISBN 9787506417075.
- ISBN 9787810388870.
- ^ 卞, 向阳 (November 2003). "论旗袍的流行起源". 装饰 (11). J523.
- ^ "Vietnam Traditional Clothes: Ao Dai – VietnamOnline". www.vietnamonline.com. Retrieved 30 June 2021.
- OCLC 741749415.
- )
- ^ a b c d e f "The Vietnamese "Áo dài" | Tập San Việt Học". Retrieved 30 June 2021.
- ^ )
- ^ Fiona. "A Brief History of Traditional Vietnamese Ao Dai". Travel information for Vietnam from local experts. Retrieved 30 June 2021.
- ^ "All about ao dai: Vietnam's national dress". Vietnam Tourism. Retrieved 30 June 2021.
- ^ "Áo Dài's Timeless Beauty". CultureMagazin®. 19 March 2021. Archived from the original on 22 June 2021. Retrieved 30 June 2021.
Sources
- Bai Yun (2006). Zhongguo lao qipao: lao zhaopian lao guanggo jianzheng qipao de yanbian [The traditional qiapo of China: evidence of its [stylistic] changes in old photographs and old advertisements]. Beijing: Guangming ribao chubanshe. OCLC 123015683.
- Bao Mingxin; Ma Li, eds. (1998). Zhongguo Qipao [China's Qipao]. Shanghai: Shanghai wenhua chubanshe. OCLC 51630832.
- Chang, Eileen (Zhang Ailing) (Fall 2003). "A Chronicle of Changing Clothes". Positions: East Asia Cultures Critique. 11 (2). Andrew F. Jones, trans.: 427–441. S2CID 145592956. Archived from the originalon 15 November 2013. Retrieved 6 July 2012.
- Clark, Hazel (2000). The Cheongsam. Images of Asia. Hong Kong: Oxford University Press (China). OCLC 44876865.
- Finnane, Antonia (2007). "Chapter 6: Qipao China". Changing Clothes in China: Fashion, History, Nation. New York: Columbia University Press. pp. 139–176. OCLC 84903948.
- Roberts, Claire, ed. (1997). Evolution and Revolution: Chinese Dress 1700s–1900s. Sydney: Powerhouse Pub., Museum of Applied Arts and Sciences. OCLC 37745658.
- Lee, Chor Lin; Chung May Khuen (2012). In the Mood for Cheongsam: A Social History, 1920s–Present. Singapore: Editions Didier Millet and OCLC 767566394.
- Schmitz, Rob (2 June 2012). "The Street of Eternal Happiness: The Tailor". Marketplace. Archived from the original on 23 June 2012. Retrieved 22 June 2012. About a tailor of cheongsam who has been in the business for nearly 80 years.
- Van Roojen, Pepin (2009). Cheongsam 旗袍 (Book + CD-ROM). Pepin Fashion, Textiles & Patterns, no. 1. Amsterdam: Pepin Press. OCLC 632704710.
External links
- About.com entry Archived 7 January 2011 at the Wayback Machine on the qipao