Chickpea
Chickpeas | |
---|---|
Dried chickpeas. The larger light tan kabuli and variously coloured desi are the two main types of chickpea. They are green when picked early and vary through tan or beige, speckled, dark brown to black. 75% of world production is of the smaller desi type. | |
Sprouted chickpea | |
Scientific classification | |
Kingdom: | Plantae |
Clade: | Tracheophytes |
Clade: | Angiosperms |
Clade: | Eudicots |
Clade: | Rosids |
Order: | Fabales |
Family: | Fabaceae |
Subfamily: | Faboideae |
Genus: | Cicer |
Species: | C. arietinum
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Binomial name | |
Cicer arietinum | |
Synonyms[1] | |
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The chickpea or chick pea (Cicer arietinum) is an annual legume of the family Fabaceae, subfamily Faboideae.[2][3] Its different types are variously known as gram[4][5] or Bengal gram,[5] chhana, chana, or channa, garbanzo[5] or garbanzo bean, or Egyptian pea.[4] Chickpea seeds are high in protein. It is one of the earliest cultivated legumes, the oldest archaeological evidence of which was found in Syria.[6][7][8]
The chickpea is a key ingredient in Mediterranean and Middle Eastern cuisines, used in hummus, and, when soaked and coarsely ground with herbs and spices then made into patties and fried, falafel. As an important part of Indian cuisine, it is used in salads, soups and stews, and curry, in chana masala, and in other food products that contain channa (chickpeas). In 2019, India was responsible for 70% of global chickpea production.[9]
Etymology
The name "chickpea", earlier "chiche pease", is modelled on
History
The earliest well-preserved archaeobotanical evidence of chickpea outside its wild progenitor's natural distribution area comes from the site of Tell el-Kerkh, in modern Syria, dating back to the early Pre-Pottery Neolithic period around c.8400 BC.[12]
In southern France, mesolithic layers in a cave at L'Abeurador, Hérault, have yielded chickpeas, carbon-dated to 6790±90 BC.[14] They were found in the late Neolithic (about 3500 BC) sites at Thessaly, Kastanas, Lerna and Dimini, Greece.
Chickpeas are mentioned in
In 1793, ground, roasted chickpeas were noted by a German writer as a substitute for coffee in Europe.
Genome sequencing
Sequencing of the genome of the chickpea has been completed for 90 chickpea genotypes, including several wild species.[18] A collaboration of 20 research organizations, led by the International Crops Research Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics (ICRISAT), sequenced CDC Frontier, a kabuli chickpea variety, and identified more than 28,000 genes and several million genetic markers.[19]
Description
This section needs additional citations for verification. (June 2021) |
The plant grows to 20–50 cm (8–20 in) high and has small, feathery leaves on either side of the stem. Chickpeas are a type of pulse, with one seedpod containing two or three peas. It has white flowers with blue, violet, or pink veins.
Dozens of varieties of chickpea are cultivated throughout the world. In general, American and Iranian chickpeas are sweeter than Indian chickpeas. Kermanshah chickpeas in sizes 8 and 9 are considered among the world's highest quality.[20]
Varieties
The most common variety of chickpea in South Asia, Ethiopia, Mexico, and Iran is the desi type, also called Bengal gram.[21] It has small, dark seeds and a rough coat. It can be black, green or speckled. In Hindi, it is called desi chana 'native chickpea' or kala chana 'black chickpea', and in Assamese, it is called boot or chholaa boot. It can be hulled and split to make chana dal, Kurukshetra Prasadam (channa laddu),[22] and bootor daali.
Around the Mediterranean and in the Middle East, the most common variety of chickpea is the kabuli type. It is large and tan-colored, with a smooth coat. It was introduced to India in the 18th century from Afghanistan and is called kabuli chana in Hindi.[23]
An uncommon black chickpea, ceci neri, is grown only in Apulia and Basilicata, in southern Italy. It is around the same size as garbanzo beans, larger and darker than the 'desi' variety.
Production
Country | Production (millions of tonnes) |
---|---|
India | 11.1
|
Turkey | 0.6
|
Myanmar | 0.5
|
Pakistan | 0.5
|
World |
15.1
|
Source: FAOSTAT of the United Nations[9]
|
In 2020, world production of chickpeas was 15 million tonnes, led by India with 73% of the global total,[24] and Turkey, Myanmar, and Pakistan as secondary producers (table).[9]
Uses
This section needs additional citations for verification. (June 2021) |
Culinary
Chickpeas are usually rapidly boiled for 10 minutes and then simmered for longer. Dried chickpeas need a long cooking time (1–2 hours) but will easily fall apart when cooked longer. If soaked for 12–24 hours before use, cooking time can be shortened by around 30 minutes. Chickpeas can also be
Mature chickpeas can be cooked and eaten cold in salads, cooked in stews, ground into flour, ground and shaped in balls and fried as falafel, made into a batter and baked to make farinata or socca, or fried to make panelle. Chickpea flour is known as gram flour or besan in South Asia and is used frequently in South Asian cuisine.
In Portugal, chickpeas are one of the main ingredients in rancho, eaten with pasta, meat, or rice. They are used in other hot dishes with bacalhau and in soups, meat stews, salads mixed with tuna and vegetables, olive oil, vinegar, hot pepper and salt. In Spain, they are used cold in tapas and salads, as well as in cocido madrileño.
Hummus is the Arabic word for chickpeas, which are often cooked and ground into a paste and mixed with tahini (sesame seed paste) to make ḥummuṣ bi ṭaḥīna, usually called simply hummus in English. By the end of the 20th century, hummus had become common in American cuisine:[25] by 2010, 5% of Americans consumed it regularly,[25] and it was present at some point in 17% of American households.[26]
In the Middle East, chickpeas are also roasted, spiced, and eaten as a snack, such as leblebi.
Chickpeas and Bengal grams are used to make curries. are made.
Chickpea flour is used to make "
In the Philippines, chickpeas preserved in syrup are eaten as sweets and in desserts such as halo-halo.
Ashkenazi Jews traditionally serve whole chickpeas, referred to as arbes (אַרבעס) in Yiddish, at the Shalom Zachar celebration for baby boys. The chickpeas are boiled until soft and served hot with salt and lots of ground black pepper.[34]
Guasanas or garbanza is a Mexican chickpea street snack. The beans, while still green, are cooked in water and salt, kept in a steamer to maintain their humidity, and served in a plastic bag.
A chickpea-derived liquid (aquafaba) can be used as an egg white replacement to make meringue[35] or ice cream, with the residual pomace used as flour.[36]
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Doubles, a street food in Trinidad and Tobago
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Manchego cuisine; chickpea and Silene vulgaris stew (potaje de garbanzos y collejas)
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Italianchickpea snack food
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Chakhchoukha in Algerian cuisine; freshly cooked marqa before mixing with rougag
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Chana masala, India
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Halua chickpeas, Bangladesh
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Fried chickpea
Animal feed
Chickpeas are an energy and protein source as animal feed.[37]
Raw chickpeas have a lower
Experiments have shown that ruminants grow equally well and produce an equal amount and quality of milk when soybean or cereal meals are replaced with chickpeas. Pigs show the same performance, but growing pigs experience a negative effect of raw chickpea feed; extruded chickpeas can increase performance even in growing pigs. Only young broilers (starting period) showed worse performance in poultry diet experiments with untreated chickpeas. Fish performed equally well when extruded chickpeas replaced their soybean or cereal diet.[37] Chickpea seeds have also been used in rabbit diets.[21]
Secondary components of legumes—such as
Nutrition
Nutritional value per 100 g (3.5 oz) | |
---|---|
Energy | 686 kJ (164 kcal) |
27.42 g | |
Sugars | 4.8 g |
Dietary fibre | 7.6 g |
2.59 g | |
Saturated | 0.27 g |
Monounsaturated | 0.58 g |
Polyunsaturated | 1.16 g |
8.86 g | |
Niacin (B3) | 3% 0.53 mg |
Pantothenic acid (B5) | 6% 0.29 mg |
Vitamin B6 | 8% 0.14 mg |
Folate (B9) | 43% 172 μg |
Vitamin C | 1% 1.3 mg |
Vitamin E | 2% 0.35 mg |
Vitamin K | 3% 4 μg |
Minerals | Quantity %DV† |
Calcium | 4% 49 mg |
Iron | 16% 2.89 mg |
Magnesium | 11% 48 mg |
Manganese | 45% 1.03 mg |
Phosphorus | 13% 168 mg |
Potassium | 6% 291 mg |
Sodium | 0% 7 mg |
Zinc | 14% 1.53 mg |
Other constituents | Quantity |
Water | 60.21 g |
†Percentages estimated using US recommendations for adults.[38] |
Nutritional value per 100 g (3.5 oz) | |
---|---|
Energy | 1,581 kJ (378 kcal) |
62.95 g | |
Sugars | 10.7 g |
Dietary fibre | 12.2 g |
6.04 g | |
Saturated | 0.603 |
Monounsaturated | 1.377 |
Polyunsaturated | 2.731 |
20.5 g | |
Niacin (B3) | 10% 1.541 mg |
Pantothenic acid (B5) | 32% 1.588 mg |
Vitamin B6 | 31% 0.535 mg |
Folate (B9) | 139% 557 μg |
Vitamin C | 4% 4 mg |
Vitamin E | 5% 0.82 mg |
Vitamin K | 8% 9 μg |
Copper | 73% 0.656 mg |
Iron | 24% 4.31 mg |
Magnesium | 19% 79 mg |
Phosphorus | 20% 252 mg |
Potassium | 15% 718 mg |
Sodium | 1% 24 mg |
Zinc | 25% 2.76 mg |
Other constituents | Quantity |
Water | 7.68 g |
†Percentages estimated using US recommendations for adults.[38] |
Chickpeas are a nutrient-dense food, providing rich content (20% or higher of the
A 100-gram (3+1⁄2-ounce) reference serving of cooked chickpeas provides 686 kilojoules (164 kilocalories) of
Effects of cooking
Cooking treatments do not lead to variance in total protein and carbohydrate content.
Germination
Germination of chickpeas improves protein digestibility, although at a lower level than cooking. Germination degrades proteins to simple peptides, improving crude protein, nonprotein nitrogen, and crude fibre content. Germination decreases lysine, tryptophan, sulphur and total aromatic amino acids, but most contents are still higher than proposed by the FAO/WHO reference pattern.[41]
Oligosaccharides, such as stachyose and raffinose, are reduced in higher amounts during germination than during cooking. Minerals and B vitamins are retained more effectively during germination than with cooking. Phytic acids are reduced significantly, but trypsin inhibitor, tannin, and saponin reduction is less effective than cooking.[41]
Autoclaving, microwave cooking, boiling
All treatments of cooking improve protein digestibility.[
Finally, all treatments improve protein digestibility, protein efficiency ratio, and essential amino acid index. Microwave cooking seems to be an effective method to prepare chickpeas because of its improved nutritional value and lower cooking time.[41]
Leaves
In some parts of the world, young chickpea leaves are consumed as cooked green vegetables. Especially in malnourished populations, it can supplement important dietary nutrients because regions where chickpeas are consumed have sometimes been found to have populations lacking micronutrients.[43] Chickpea leaves have a significantly higher mineral content than either cabbage leaves or spinach leaves.[43] Environmental factors and nutrient availability could influence mineral concentrations in natural settings. Consumption of chickpea leaves may contribute nutrients to the diet.[43]
Research
The consumption of chickpeas is under preliminary research for the potential to improve nutrition and affect chronic diseases.[42][44]
Heat and nutrient cultivation
Agricultural yield for chickpeas is often based on
Perennial chickpeas are a fundamental source of nutrition in animal feed as they are high-energy and protein sources for livestock. Unlike other food crops, the perennial chickpea can change its nutritional content in response to heat cultivation. Treating the chickpea with a constant heat source increases its protein content almost threefold.[46] Consequently, the impact of heat cultivation affects the protein content of the chickpea itself and the ecosystem it supports. Increasing the height and size of chickpea plants involves using macronutrient fertilization with varying doses of inorganic phosphorus and nitrogen.[47]
The level of phosphorus that a chickpea seed is exposed to during its lifecycle has a positive correlation relative to the height of the plant at full maturity.[47] Increasing the levels of inorganic phosphorus at all doses incrementally increases the height of the chickpea plant. Thus, the seasonal changes in phosphorus soil content, as well as periods of drought that are known to be a native characteristic of the dry Middle-Eastern region where the chickpea is most commonly cultivated, have a strong effect on the growth of the plant itself. Plant yield is also affected by a combination of phosphorus nutrition and water supply, resulting in a 12% increase in crop yield.[47]
Nitrogen nutrition is another factor that affects the yield of Cicer arietinum, although the application differs from other perennial crops regarding the levels administered on the plant. High doses of nitrogen inhibit the yield of the chickpea plant.[48] Drought stress is a likely factor that inhibits nitrogen uptake and subsequent fixation in the roots of Cicer arietinum. The perennial chickpea's growth depends on the balance between nitrogen fixation and assimilation, which is also characteristic of many other agricultural plant types. The influence of drought stress, sowing date, and mineral nitrogen supply affect the plant's yield and size, with trials showing that Cicer arietinum differed from other plant species in its capacity to assimilate mineral nitrogen supply from the soil during drought stress.[48] Additional minerals and micronutrients make the absorption process of nitrogen and phosphorus more available. Inorganic phosphate ions are generally attracted towards charged minerals such as iron and aluminium oxides.[49]
Additionally, growth and yield are also limited by the
Pathogens
Pathogens in chickpeas are the main cause of yield loss (up to 90%).[
From 1978 until 1995, the worldwide number of pathogens increased from 49 to 172, of which 35 were recorded in India. These pathogens originate from groups of bacteria, fungi, viruses, mycoplasma and nematodes and show a high genotypic variation. The most widely distributed pathogens are
The stagnation of yield improvement over the last decades is linked to the susceptibility to pathogens.[55] Research for yield improvement, such as an attempt to increase yield from 0.8 to 2.0 metric tons per hectare (0.32 to 0.80 long ton/acre; 0.36 to 0.89 short ton/acre) by breeding cold-resistant varieties, is always linked with pathogen-resistance breeding as pathogens such as Ascochyta rabiei and F. o. f.sp. ciceris flourish in conditions such as cold temperature. Research started selecting favourable genes for pathogen resistance and other traits through marker-assisted selection. This method is a promising sign for the future to achieve significant yield improvements.[56]
Gallery
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Cicers farm
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Lime green chickpeas
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Black chickpeas
See also
References
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- ^ Zohary, Daniel and Hopf, Maria, Domestication of Plants in the Old World (third edition), Oxford University Press, 2000, p. 110
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External links
- India Pulses and Grains Association (Archived 2020-02-07 at the Wayback Machine)