China–Democratic Republic of the Congo relations
China |
DR Congo |
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The
The Free State became
At the time, the Congo was known as Zaire. In the 21st century, Chinese investment in the DRC and Congolese exports to China have grown rapidly. The DRC joined the Belt and Road Initiative in 2021.
The DRC upholds the One-China policy, as it recognizes the PRC as the sole legitimate government of China rather than the ROC, which regards Taiwan as part of China.[1]
Qing relations with the Congo Free State
In 1887, King
On 10 July 1898, China and the Congo Free State signed a "special chapter" in Peking that stated, in part: "It was agreed upon that Chinese citizens can at will move to and live in the Congo Free State. All properties, movable or unmovable, can be purchased or traded. Whether for shipping, business, crafts or arts, Chinese citizens will receive the same treatment as citizens of the most favorable countries." This agreement granted China "most favoured nation" status in the Congo. It also had the effect of legalising the recruitment of Chinese for work in the Congo. Although Congolese authorities found the performance of the workers of 1892 unsatisfactory, recruitment drives were undertaken in China in 1901, 1902, 1904, and 1906.[2] During this second period of recruitment, about 2,000 Chinese went to the Congo. In 1906, Hong Kong alone produced 500 recruits.[4]
Establishing relations with the ROC and PRC
In October 1960, the newly independent DRC, then called the
Relations were again established between the DRC, then known as the
During the time that the DRC/Zaire recognised Taiwan, between 1961 and 1971, the PRC supported and provided material support to anti-Zairian rebels. After Zaire's president,
Present economic relations
The DRC is a major destination for Chinese investment, especially in mining, with the
In June 2000, a Sino-Congolese telecommunications company (
Exports of copper ore and hard woods to China increased greatly in 2007.[10]: 43
China and the DRC have significant trade in cobalt, a metal for which China is the world's largest consumer due to its importance in batteries for electric vehicles.[11]: 127 As of at least 2024, the DRC produces more than 70% of the world's cobalt, and most of this production goes to China.[11]: 127 Chinese companies also account for the majority of cobalt mining in the DRC.[11]: 127
Sicomines
A deal was struck between Sicomines, a consortium of Chinese companies (
The US$6 billion was originally to have been invested in a total of 6,600 km of road would be either built or rehabilitated, two hospitals and two universities being built. The mining concessions in Dima (Dikuluwe) and Mashamba West would have given Sicomines access to 10.6 million tons of copper and over 600,000 tons of cobalt, with 6.8 million tons of copper and 427,000 tons of cobalt being confirmed deposits. The mine will come online at the earliest in 2013.
The Congolese and Chinese side have argued that the financing provided to Sicomines by China EXIM Bank is not to be seen as regular government debt since, as stated in article 10.1 of the contract, it is taken on by the joint venture and is backed by the mineral concessions. The articles 10.3, 13.2 and 13.3.3 of the contract are however the stumbling blocks in the context, stating that the Congolese state guarantees the repayment of the loan.[10]: 34
Critics of the project have alleged that the deal undervalues the mineral deposits in Katanga. The International Monetary Fund (IMF) has raised concerns about this deal negatively affecting the DRC's ability to sustain its debt. This is because the deal would disqualify the country from the IMF's foreign debt relief program run under the auspices of the World Bank Group’s Highly Indebted Poor Country (HIPC) program, as the DRC would be getting its debt canceled only to be taking on even more new debts. The IMF has argued that in order for the DRC to remain eligible and the deal to go through the value of the Sicomines deal would have to be greatly reduced. In May 2009, the Congolese government agreed to put on hold US$3 billion of the deal while a feasibility study for the mineral concessions is finalized.[10]: 33–34
As of October 2017, "Sinohydro Corp. and China Railway Construction...own 68 percent of Sicomines," with the government of the Democratic Republic of the Congo originally telling the Chinese companies to "stop exporting unprocessed copper and cobalt and refine all its metals within the country" and later reversing their decision.[12][13][14][15]
A 2017 report by the Carter Center estimated that $685 million in loans for Sicomines' infrastructure projects had gone missing, with no evidence that the money was used for its intended purpose, raising concerns about using Chinese money for corruption.[16][17]
Benefaction
Former governor of Katanga province Moïse Katumbi estimated that over 60 of the province's 75 processing plants are owned by Chinese nationals. He said that 90% of the region's minerals went to China.[18] They are known to have poor environmental and labour relations records and have been accused, directly or indirectly, of using child labour.[18][19]: 12–15 In 2007, about 600 Chinese nationals were expelled from Katanga for violating labour and environmental laws.[18]
Building projects in the DRC
Since 1972, the PRC has given a number of donations to the DRC. Including a farm on the outskirts of
In January 2021, the Chinese government agreed to cancel Congolese debt worth US$28 million and pledged US$17 million in aid, mainly for development projects. At the same time, the Democratic Republic of the Congo joined the Belt and Road Initiative.[22]
Military cooperation
China has also been committed to providing assistance for reforming the
Official visits
Throughout 2015 and 2016, high-ranking officials of the DRC, including President Kabila, Prime Minister
References
- ^ "African Union, China upbeat over upcoming FOCAC".
- ^ a b Li Anshan, A History of Overseas Chinese in Africa to 1911 (Diasporic Africa Press, 2012), 76–77.
- ^ Anshan (2012), 89.
- ^ Anshan (2012), 91.
- ^ http://www.china.org.cn/english/features/focac/183553.htm Archived 2012-05-27 at the Wayback Machine China.Org.Cn website where it says "In October [1960], the Congolese Kasavubu government "established diplomatic relations" with the Taiwan Authority."
- ^ ISBN 978-0-231-21001-0.
- ^ a b c d e Hon, Tracy; Jansson, Johanna; Shelton, Garth; Liu, Haifang; Burke, Christopher; Kiala, Carine (January 2010). "Evaluating China's FOCAC commitments to Africa and mapping the way ahead" (PDF). Centre for Chinese Studies, Stellenbosch University. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2016-08-24. Retrieved 24 January 2011.
- ^ Chinese Ministry of Foreign Affairs (2006-10-10). "Congo (DRC)". Retrieved 24 January 2011.[permanent dead link]
- ^ "Why China is making a big play for Congo's cobalt – and other critical minerals". South China Morning Post. 15 August 2021. Retrieved 15 August 2021.
- ^ a b c Burke, Christopher; Jansson, Johanna; Jiang, Wenran (August 2009). "Chinese Companies in the Extractive Industries of Gabon & the DRC: Perceptions of Transparency" (PDF). Centre for Chinese Studies, Stellenbosch University. Archived from the original (PDF) on 26 July 2011. Retrieved 24 January 2011.
- ^ ISBN 978-1-350-25231-8.
- ^ William Clowes, "Congo Halts Sicomines Copper Exports, Orders Local Processing Archived 2018-11-20 at the Wayback Machine,"American Journal of Transportation, Oct 2017.
- Mail and Guardian, Oct 15, 2015.
- ^ Aaron Ross, "Congo orders China joint venture to stop exporting raw metals Archived 2020-11-12 at the Wayback Machine,"Reuters, Oct 9, 2017.
- ^ Reuters Staff, "Congo lifts ban on raw metal exports by Chinese joint venture Archived 2020-09-22 at the Wayback Machine," Reuters, Oct 11, 2017.
- ^ Solomon, Salem; Frechette, Casey (September 13, 2018). "Corruption Is Wasting Chinese Money in Africa". Foreign Policy. Archived from the original on November 1, 2020. Retrieved January 7, 2021.
- ^ "A State Affair: Privatizing Congo's Copper Sector" (PDF). Carter Center. November 2017. Archived (PDF) from the original on 21 October 2020. Retrieved 7 January 2021.
- ^ a b c Clark, Simon (22 July 2008). "China Lets Child Workers Die Digging in Congo Mines for Copper". Bloomberg. Archived from the original on 8 April 2011. Retrieved 16 March 2011.
- ^ Marks, Stephen (2010). "Strengthening the Civil Society Perspective: China's African Impact" (PDF). Fahamu. Archived from the original (PDF) on 4 January 2011. Retrieved 16 March 2011.
- Consumer Price Index, retrieved on the 24/01/2011
- ^ Austin Strange, Bradley C. Parks, Michael J. Tierney, Andreas Fuchs, Axel Dreher, and Vijaya Ramachandran. 2013. China’s Development Finance to Africa: A Media-Based Approach to Data Collection. CGD Working Paper 323. Washington DC: Center for Global Development.[1]
- ^ "China cancels Democratic Republic of Congo loans as it joins belt and road". South China Morning Post. 7 January 2021. Archived from the original on 7 January 2021. Retrieved 7 January 2021.
- ^ Wondo, Jean-Jacques (23 May 2018). Joseph Kabila continues to over-equip his regime militarily for the upcoming political deadlines – JJ Wondo Archived 2018-09-25 at the Wayback Machine. Desc-wondo.
- ^ "非洲总统回中国母校(名人特写)". 人民網. 2002-04-04. Archived from the original on 2018-08-24. Retrieved 2019-12-30.
- ^ "Joseph Kabila Kabange". GlobalSecurity.org. Archived from the original on 2021-01-07. Retrieved 2019-12-30.
- ^ Activities Archived 2017-03-19 at the Wayback Machine. Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the People's Republic of China. Retrieved 18 March 2016.
Further reading
- Sun, Jodie Yuzhou (2022). "Supplied Cash and Arms but Losing Anyway: Chinese Support of the Lumumbist Insurgencies in the Congo Crisis (1959–65)". Cold War History. 22 (4): 459–478. .
- ISBN 9788498922578.