China–Vietnam relations

Source: Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia.
Vietnam–China relations
Map indicating locations of People's Republic of China and Socialist Republic of Vietnam

China

Vietnam
Diplomatic mission
Chinese Embassy, HanoiVietnamese Embassy, Beijing
Envoy
Ambassador Xiong BoAmbassador Pham Sao Mai

Relations between

conquest by modern China's imperial predecessor as well as modern-day tensions have made relations wary.[1][2] The People's Republic of China (PRC) ruled by the Chinese Communist Party (CCP) assisted North Vietnam and the Communist Party of Vietnam (CPV) during the Vietnam War whilst the Taiwan-based Republic of China (ROC) was allied with South Vietnam
.

Following the fall of Saigon in 1975 and the subsequent Vietnamese reunification in 1976, relations between the two countries started to deteriorate. Vietnam ousted the Khmer Rouge, a party that China propped up which had become genocidal, from power in Cambodia. China invaded Vietnam in 1979, beginning the Sino-Vietnamese War. China perceived Vietnam's domination over Indochina from Vietnam's historical legacy (Minh Mang) whilst Vietnam desired Vietnamese-friendly neighbors (Laos and Cambodia) bordering its immediate western borders.

Cross-border raids and skirmishes ensued, in which China and Vietnam fought a prolonged border war from 1979 to 1990. The two countries officially normalized diplomatic ties in 1991. Although both sides have since worked to improve their diplomatic and economic ties, the two countries remain in dispute over political and territorial issues in the South China Sea (or East Sea).[3] China and Vietnam share a 1,281 kilometres (796 mi) border. In 2014, a survey conducted by the Pew Research Center showed 84% of Vietnamese were concerned that disputes relating to the South China Sea could lead to military conflict.[4] However, the two countries have been striving for restraint as well as present and future stability.[5][6] The two countries' political parties, although faced with a number of concerns, have since maintained ideological ties.[7]

History

Early history

Embassy of Vietnam in China

China and Vietnam had contact since the Chinese

four separate periods of imperial Chinese domination although it successfully asserted a degree of independence after the Battle of Bạch Đằng
in 938 AD.

According to the old Vietnamese historical records

Shu (, which shares the same Chinese character as his surname Thục),[8] sent by his father first to explore what are now the southern Chinese provinces of Guangxi and Yunnan and then to move their people to what is now northern Vietnam during the invasion of the Qin dynasty.[citation needed
]

Some modern Vietnamese scholars[

Văn Lang to Âu Lạc and established the new capital at Phong Khê (now Phú Thọ, a town in northern Vietnam), where he tried to build Cổ Loa Citadel, the spiral fortress approximately ten miles north of his new capital.[citation needed
]

Han Chinese migration into Vietnam has been dated back to the era of the 2nd century BC, when Qin Shi Huang first placed northern Vietnam under Chinese rule (disputed), Chinese soldiers and fugitives from Central China have migrated en masse into northern Vietnam since then and introduced Chinese influences into Vietnamese culture.[10][11] The Chinese military leader Zhao Tuo founded the Triệu dynasty, which ruled Nanyue in southern China and northern Vietnam. The Qin governor of Canton advised Zhao to found his own independent kingdom since the area was remote, and there were many Chinese settlers in the area.[12] The Chinese prefect of Jiaozhi, Shi Xie, ruled Vietnam as an autonomous warlord and was posthumously deified by later Vietnamese emperors. Shi Xie was the leader of the elite ruling class of Han Chinese families that immigrated to Vietnam and played a major role in developing Vietnam's culture.[13]

Imperial period

After Vietnam gained its independence in 939, a series of wars between China and Vietnam occurred in which Vietnam, at its peak, invaded China once, during the

Quang Trung
at 1789.

In 1884, during Vietnam's

Indochina, spelling the end of formal Chinese influence on Vietnam and the beginning of Vietnam's French colonial period
.

Both China and Vietnam faced invasion and occupation by

Imperial Japan during World War II, and Vietnam languished under the rule of Vichy France. In the Chinese provinces of Guangxi and Guangdong, Vietnamese revolutionaries, led by Phan Bội Châu, had arranged alliances with the Chinese Nationalists, the Kuomintang, before the war by marrying Vietnamese women to Chinese National Revolutionary Army officers. Their children were at an advantage since they could speak both languages and so they worked as agents for the revolutionaries, spreading their ideologies across borders. The intermarriage between Chinese and Vietnamese was viewed with alarm by the French. Chinese merchants also married Vietnamese women and provided funds and help for revolutionary agents.[14]

Late in the war, with Japan and

Franklin Roosevelt privately decided that the French should not return in Indochina after the war was over. Roosevelt offered the Kuomintang leader, Chiang Kai-shek, all of Indochina to be under Chinese rule, but Chiang Kai-shek reportedly replied, "Under no circumstances!"[15] In August 1943, China broke diplomatic relations with Vichy France, with the Central Daily News announcing that diplomatic relations were to be solely between the Chinese and the Vietnamese, with no French intermediary. China had planned to spread massive propaganda on the Atlantic Charter and Roosevelt's statement on Vietnamese self-determination to undermine the French authority in Indochina.[16]

After Roosevelt's death in April 1945, his successor,

Free French Forces
in Europe.

According to a 2018 study in the Journal of Conflict Resolution on Vietnam-China relations from 1365 to 1841, they could be characterized as a "hierarchic tributary system" from 1365 to 1841.[17] The study found that "the Vietnamese court explicitly recognized its unequal status in its relations with China through a number of institutions and norms. Vietnamese rulers also displayed very little military attention to their relations with China. Rather, Vietnamese leaders were clearly more concerned with quelling chronic domestic instability and managing relations with kingdoms to their south and west."[17] However, decades of conflicts between China and Vietnam during the era, with Vietnamese attacks on China's allies, would challenge that claim.

Cold War

Postage Stamp of Vietnamese Leader Ho Chi Minh with Chinese Leader Mao Zedong and Soviet Leader Georgy Malenkov in 1954

After the Second World War ended, a

concessions in China and to renounce their extraterritorial privileges in exchange for withdrawing from northern Indochina and for allowing French troops to reoccupy the region.[21][22][23][24]

China–North Vietnam relations

China

North Vietnam

Vietnam War

Taiwan–South Vietnam relations

Republic of China

South Vietnam

Along with the

capitalist South Vietnam, their ally the United States, and other anti-communists between 1949 and 1975.[25] During 1964 to 1969, Communist China reportedly sent over 300,000 troops, mostly in anti-aircraft divisions to combat in Vietnam.[26] However, the Vietnamese communists remained suspicious of China's perceived attempts to increase its influence over Vietnam.[27] During the 1954 Geneva Conference ending the First Indochina War, Chinese premier Zhou Enlai urged the Viet Minh delegation to accept partition at the 17th parallel, which was regarded as a betrayal.[28]

In 1960, China became the first country to recognize the Viet Cong in Vietnam.

Vietnam was an ideological battleground during the 1960s

yuan
in military and economic aid if they refused all Soviet aid.

In response to U.S. bombing of North Vietnam, China launched the Resist America, Aid Vietnam campaign.[29]: 29  The campaign themes denounced U.S. imperialism and promoted Vietnamese resistance.[29]: 29  Local communist party cadre organized mass meetings and street demonstrations, and millions of people across the country marched in China to support the campaign between February 9 and February 11, 1965.[29]: 29  The communist party also expanded the campaign into cultural media such as film and photography exhibitions, singing contests, and street performances.[29]: 29 

During the Vietnam War, the North Vietnamese and the Chinese had agreed to defer tackling their territorial issues until South Vietnam was defeated. Those issues included the lack of delineation of Vietnam's

White Dragon Tail Island to North Vietnam.[31] The potential of offshore oil deposits in the Gulf of Tonkin
heightened tensions between China and South Vietnam.

In 1973, with the Vietnam War drawing to a close, North Vietnam announced its intention to allow foreign companies to explore oil deposits in disputed waters. In January 1974, a clash between Chinese and South Vietnamese forces resulted in China taking complete control of the Paracels.[27] After its Fall of Saigon in 1975, North Vietnam took over the South Vietnamese-controlled portions of the Spratly Islands.[27] The unified Vietnam then canceled its earlier renunciation of its claim to the Paracels, and both China and Vietnam claim control over all the Spratlys and actually control some of the islands.[30] Vietnam was reunited under a communist banner in 1976.

Sino-Vietnamese conflicts 1979–1990

In the wake of the Vietnam War, the Cambodian–Vietnamese War caused tensions with China, which had allied itself with Democratic Kampuchea.[27][32] That and Vietnam's close ties to the Soviet Union made China consider Vietnam to be a threat to its regional sphere of influence.[32][33] Tensions were heightened in the 1970s by the Vietnamese government's oppression of the Hoa minority (Vietnamese of Chinese ethnicity[27][32][33]) and the invasion of Khmer Rouge-held Cambodia. At the same time, Vietnam expressed its disapproval with China strengthening ties with the United States since the Nixon–Mao Summit of 1972. By 1978, China ended its aid to Vietnam, which had signed a treaty of friendship with the Soviet Union and established extensive commercial and military ties.[27][32]

On February 17, 1979, the Chinese People's Liberation Army crossed the Vietnamese border but withdrew on March 5, after a two-week campaign had devastated northern Vietnam and briefly threatened the Vietnamese capital, Hanoi.[27][33] Both sides suffered relatively heavy losses, with thousands of casualties. Subsequent peace talks broke down in December 1979, and China and Vietnam began a major buildup of forces along the border. Vietnam fortified its border towns and districts and stationed as many as 600,000 troops. China stationed 400,000 troops on its side of the border.[33] Sporadic fighting on the border occurred throughout the 1980s, and China threatened to launch another attack to force Vietnam's exit from Cambodia.[27][33]

1990–present

With the 1991

Le Kha Phieu, visited Beijing, where he met General Secretary of the Chinese Communist Party Jiang Zemin and announced a joint 16 Word Guideline for improved bilateral relations; a Joint Statement for Comprehensive Cooperation was issued in 2000.[32] In 2000, Vietnam and China successfully resolved longstanding disputes over their land border and maritime rights in the Gulf of Tonkin, including the cession of land surrounding the Friendship Pass to China.[25][32][34] A joint agreement between China and ASEAN in 2002 marked out a process of peaceful resolution and guarantees against armed conflict.[32] In 2002, Jiang Zemin made an official visit to Vietnam in which numerous agreements were signed to expand trade and co-operation and to resolve outstanding disputes.[25]

In 2020, for the celebration of Vietnam's 75th National Day, CCP general secretary Xi Jinping and CPV general secretary Nguyễn Phú Trọng reaffirmed their bilateral ties while looking back saying: "In the past 70 years, although there have been some ups and downs in bilateral relations, friendship and cooperation had always been the main flow."[35] Nguyễn Phú Trọng visited China in 2022 where he met Xi, becoming the first foreign leader to meet Xi after he secured a third term in the 20th CCP National Congress.[36] Both leaders released a joint statement, calling for cooperation in economic, political, defense and security areas and working together in “the fight against terrorism, ‘peaceful evolution’, ‘colour revolution’ and the politicisation of human rights issues”.[36] Vietnamese prime minister Phạm Minh Chính visited China in June 2023 to attend a summit of the World Economic Forum. While in China, he met with Xi, Chinese premier Li Qiang,[37] chairman of the Standing Committee of the National People's Congress Zhao Leji,[38] and chairman of the Chinese People's Political Consultative Conference Wang Huning.[39] Phạm additionally visited Xiong'an New Area, a key project of Xi.[40]

Commercial ties

Countries that have signed co-operation agreements related to the Belt and Road Initiative

As of at least 2024, the Vietnamese economy is becoming increasingly connected with China's.[41]: 102  Vietnam is China's eighth largest trading partner, and largest among southeast Asian countries.[41]: 102 

As of 2022, China's accounted for 15.5% of the total exports values of Vietnam and 32.9% of imports of Vietnam.[42]

After both sides resumed trade links in 1991, growth in annual bilateral trade increased from only US$32 million in 1991 to almost US$7.2 billion in 2004.[43] By 2011, the trade volume had reached US$25 billion.[44] In 2019, the total value of trade between the two countries amounted to US$517 billion.[45] China's transformation into a major economic power in the 21st century has led to an increase of foreign investments.[46]

Vietnam's exports to China include

Quang Ninh Provinces, and the cities of Hanoi and Haiphong.[43] Air and sea links and a railway line have been opened between the countries, along with national-level seaports in the frontier provinces and regions of the two countries.[25] Joint ventures have furthermore been launched, such as the Thai Nguyen Steel Complex,[43] but the deal eventually fell through, resulting in the bankruptcy of state-owned Thai Nguyen Iron and Steel VSC and the withdrawal of the China Metallurgical Group Corporation from the project.[47]

Chinese investments in Vietnam have been rising since 2015, reaching US$2.17 billion in 2017.[48] With the proposed Trans-Pacific Partnership, Vietnam was anticipated to offer more access to regional markets for Chinese affiliated firms.[49]

In 2018, protesters went on the streets in Vietnam against government plans to open new

Quang Ninh, near the Chinese border, which would allow 99-year land leases, citing concerns about Chinese dominance.[50][51]

Tensions over maritime territory

Vietnamese troops on Spratly Island in 2009.

In June 2011, Vietnam announced that its military would conduct new exercises in the South China Sea. China had previously voiced its disagreement over Vietnamese oil exploration in the area, stating that the Spratly Islands and the surrounding waters were its sovereign territory.[52] Defense of the South China Sea was cited as one of the possible missions of the first Chinese PLA Navy aircraft carrier, the Liaoning, which entered service in September 2012.[53]

In October 2011,

Sansha City, which encompassed the Xisha (Paracel), Zhongsha, and Nansha (Spratly) Islands and the surrounding waters.[55] Vietnam proceeded to a strong opposition to the measure and the reaffirmation of its sovereignty over the islands. Other countries surrounding the South China Sea have claims to the two island chains, including Taiwan, Brunei, Malaysia, and the Philippines, but the conflict remains predominantly between Vietnam and China.[54][56]

On October 19, 2020, Japanese prime minister Yoshihide Suga visited his Vietnamese counterpart Nguyễn Xuân Phúc,[57] and they agreed to cooperate on regional issues including the South China Sea, where China's growing assertiveness in disputed waters has drawn serious concern.[58] Following Chinese foreign minister Wang Yi's high-profile visit to Vietnam in September 2021, where the Chinese foreign minister had avoided Vietnam for three years, Japanese defense minister Nobuo Kishi shortly followed up with his first visit overseas ever after Wang Yi's visit. Nobuo Kishi signed an accord that Japanese-made defense equipment and technology are to be exported to the Southeast Asian country, and to boost cooperation amid worries of China's actions.[59]

2013–2015 fishing and oil standoffs

In May 2013 Vietnam accused China of hitting one of its fishing boats,[60] and in May 2014, Vietnam accused China of ramming and sinking a fishing boat.[61] In recent years, Beijing oversaw the replacement of traditional Chinese wooden fishing vessels with steel-hulled trawlers, fitted with modern communication and high-tech navigation systems. The better-equipped boats sailed into the disputed waters as a state-subsidized operation to extend Chinese sovereignty, while in Vietnam, private citizens, not the government, would donate to Vietnamese fishermen to maintain their position in the South China Sea and to defend national sovereignty.[62] That dynamic continues to be a major source of tension between the two countries.

In May 2014, both countries sparred over an oil rig in disputed territory in the South China Sea, which triggered deadly anti-Chinese protests in Vietnam.[63] Rioters attacked hundreds of foreign-owned factories in an industrial park in southern Vietnam, targeting Chinese ones.[64] In June China declared there would be no military conflict with Vietnam.[63] China then had 71 ships in the disputed area, and Vietnam had 61.[65]

However, on 2 June 2014, it was reported by VGP News, the online newspaper of the Vietnamese Government that the previous day, Chinese ships had in three waves attacked two Vietnam Coast Guard ships, a Vietnamese fisheries surveillance ship and a number of other ships by physically ramming the ships and with water cannons.[66]

In 2015, the Council on Foreign Relations reported that the risk of a military confrontation between China and Vietnam was rising.[67] In 2017, Beijing warned Hanoi that it would attack Vietnamese bases in the Spratly Islands if gas drilling continued in the area. Hanoi then ordered Spain's Repsol, whose subsidiary was conducting the drilling, to stop drilling.[68][69]

2019–present

Through 2019 and 2020, Chinese ships have continued attacking and sinking of Vietnamese fishing and other vessels in different incidents.[70][71] Vietnam only reacted to these incidents by official statements and diplomatic protests.[72] In late 2020, Chinese Defense Minister Wei Fenghe met with Vietnamese ambassador to China Phạm Sao Mai in an attempt to cool down tensions after an increased number of incidents.[73] The Vietnamese strategy on the South Chinese Sea disputes has been described as a long term consistent act of "balancing, international integration and 'cooperation and struggle'."[74]

In 2020, Bloomberg News reported that a hacker group known as APT32 or OceanLotus, allegedly affiliated with the Vietnamese government, targeted China's Ministry of Emergency Management and the Wuhan municipal government in order to obtain information about the COVID-19 pandemic. The Vietnamese Ministry of Foreign Affairs called the accusations unfounded.[75][76][77]

Illegal border crossings by Chinese nationals was linked by the Vietnamese public as the perceived cause of new COVID-19 infections in Vietnam, although there had been no evidence for this.[78][79]

In May 2020, an Israeli cybersecurity company reported to have discovered ransomware attacks targeting government systems in Vietnam and several other countries by China-linked groups.[80]

In August 2021 shortly before an expected visit by US Vice President

COVID-19 origin investigations.[82]

In March 2023, Chinese and Vietnamese vessels had chased each other in South China Sea in an incident where Chinese ship intruded into Vietnam's Special Economic Zone.[83]

On December 12, 2023, the two countries announced 36 cooperation agreements during a visit by Chinese President

community of shared future for humankind.[84]

Diplomatic missions

See also

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