Chinese Rites controversy
The Chinese Rites controversy (
Rome's
The controversy embroiled leading European universities; the
In 1939, after two centuries, the Holy See re-assessed the issue.
Background
Early adaptation to local customs
Unlike the American landmass, which had been conquered by military force by Spain and Portugal, European missionaries encountered in Asia united, literate societies that were as yet untouched by European influence or national endeavor.[7]
Matteo Ricci's policy of accommodation
In China,
In a decree signed on 23 March 1656, Pope Alexander VII accepted practices "favorable to Chinese customs", reinforcing 1615 decrees which accepted the usage of the Chinese language in liturgy, a notable exception to the contemporary Latin Catholic discipline which had generally forbidden the use of local languages.[11]
In the 1659 instructions given by the
Do not act with zeal, do not put forward any arguments to convince these peoples to change their rites, their customs or their usages, except if they are evidently contrary to the religion [i.e., Catholic Christianity] and
Reception in China
The Jesuit order was successful in penetrating China and serving at the Imperial court. They impressed the Chinese with their knowledge of European astronomy and mechanics, and in fact ran the Imperial Observatory.[15] The Kangxi Emperor was at first friendly to the Jesuit Missionaries working in China. Their accurate methods allowed him to successfully predict eclipses, one of his ritual duties. He was grateful for the services they provided to him, in the areas of astronomy, diplomacy and artillery manufacture.[16] Jesuit translators Jean-François Gerbillon and Thomas Pereira took part in the negotiations of the Treaty of Nerchinsk in 1689, where they assisted with translation.[14] The Jesuits made an important contribution to the Empire's military, with the diffusion of European artillery technology, and they directed the castings of cannons of various calibers. The Kangxi Emperor also retained several Jesuits in his court as scientists and artists. By the end of the seventeenth century, the Jesuits had made many converts. They in turn were impressed by the knowledge and intelligence of the Han Chinese Confucian scholar elite, and adapted to their ancient Chinese intellectual lifestyle.[17]
In 1692, Kangxi issued an edict of toleration of Christianity (容敎令 or 正敎奉傳).[18]
The Europeans are very quiet; they do not excite any disturbances in the provinces, they do no harm to anyone, they commit no crimes, and their doctrine has nothing in common with that of the false sects in the empire, nor has it any tendency to excite sedition ... We decide therefore that all temples dedicated to the Lord of heaven, in whatever place they may be found, ought to be preserved, and that it may be permitted to all who wish to worship this God to enter these temples, offer him incense, and perform the ceremonies practiced according to ancient custom by the Christians. Therefore let no one henceforth offer them any opposition.[19]
This edict enabled Christianity to be perceived by the state with "positive neutrality" and acceptable in the eyes of Confucian orthodoxy.[20]
Controversy
The Jesuits gradually developed and adopted
Besides the Jesuits, other religious orders such as the
They ignited a heated controversy and brought it to Rome.[24] They raised three main points of contention:[8]
- Determination of the Chinese word for "God", which was generally accepted as 天主 Tiānzhǔ (Lord of Heaven), while Jesuits were willing to allow Chinese Christians to use 天 Tiān (Heaven) or 上帝 Shàngdì (Lord Above / Supreme Emperor)
- Prohibition of Christians from participating in the seasonal rites for Confucius.
- Prohibition of Christians from using of tablets with the forbidden inscription "site of the soul", and from following the Chinese rites for the ancestor worship.
In Rome, the Jesuits tried to argue that these "Chinese Rites" were civic rituals, rather than religious, and that converts should be allowed to continue to participate.[25][26] They maintained that Chinese folk religion and offerings to the Emperor and departed ancestors were civil in nature and therefore not incompatible with Catholicism, while their opponents argued that these kinds of worship were an expression of native religion and thus incompatible with Catholic beliefs.[27][28]
Pope Clement XI's decree
Pope Clement XI condemned the Chinese rites and Confucian rituals, and outlawed any further discussion in 1704,[29] with the anti-rites decree Cum Deus optimus of 20 November 1704.[21] It forbade the use of "Tian" and "Shangdi", while approving "Tianzhu" ('Lord of Heaven').
In 1705, Clement sent a legate to the
Clement issued the bull Ex illa die on 19 March 1715, which officially condemned the Chinese rites:[16][32][33]
Pope Clement XI wishes to make the following facts permanently known to all the people in the world ...
I. The West calls Deus [God] the creator of Heaven, Earth, and everything in the universe. Since the word Deus does not sound right in the Chinese language, the Westerners in China and Chinese converts to Catholicism have used the term "Heavenly Lord" (Tiānzhǔ) for many years. From now on such terms as "Heaven" [Tiān] and "Shàngdì" should not be used: Deus should be addressed as the Lord of Heaven, Earth, and everything in the universe. The tablet that bears the Chinese words "Reverence for Heaven" should not be allowed to hang inside a Catholic church and should be immediately taken down if already there.
II. The spring and autumn worship of Confucius, together with the worship of ancestors, is not allowed among Catholic converts. It is not allowed even though the converts appear in the ritual as bystanders, because to be a bystander in this ritual is as pagan as to participate in it actively.
III. Chinese officials and successful candidates in the metropolitan, provincial, or prefectural examinations, if they have been converted to Roman Catholicism, are not allowed to worship in Confucian temples on the first and fifteenth days of each month. The same prohibition is applicable to all the Chinese Catholics who, as officials, have recently arrived at their posts or who, as students, have recently passed the metropolitan, provincial, or prefectural examinations.
IV. No Chinese Catholics are allowed to worship ancestors in their familial temples.
V. Whether at home, in the cemetery, or during the time of a funeral, a Chinese Catholic is not allowed to perform the ritual of ancestor worship. He is not allowed to do so even if he is in company with non-Christians. Such a ritual is heathen in nature regardless of the circumstances.
Despite the above decisions, I have made it clear that other Chinese customs and traditions that can in no way be interpreted as heathen in nature should be allowed to continue among Chinese converts. The way the Chinese manage their households or govern their country should by no means be interfered with. As to exactly what customs should or should not be allowed to continue, the papal legate in China will make the necessary decisions. In the absence of the papal legate, the responsibility of making such decisions should rest with the head of the China mission and the Bishop of China. In short, customs and traditions that are not contradictory to Roman Catholicism will be allowed, while those that are clearly contradictory to it will not be tolerated under any circumstances.[34]
Clement's decree was reiterated by
Imperial ban and papal suppression
In the early 18th century, Rome's challenge to the Chinese Rites led to the expulsion of Catholic missionaries from China. In July 1706, the
In 1721, the Kangxi Emperor disagreed with Clement's decree and banned Christian missions in China. In the Decree of Kangxi, he stated,
Reading this proclamation, I have concluded that the Westerners are petty indeed. It is impossible to reason with them because they do not understand larger issues as we understand them in China. There is not a single Westerner versed in Chinese works, and their remarks are often incredible and ridiculous. To judge from this proclamation, their religion is no different from other small, bigoted sects of Buddhism or Taoism. I have never seen a document which contains so much nonsense. From now on, Westerners should not be allowed to preach in China, to avoid further trouble.[36]
Chinese converts were also involved in the controversy through letters of protest, books, pamphlets, etc.[21] The Controversy debate was most intense between a group of Christian literati and a Catholic bishop (named Charles Maigrot de Crissey) in Fujian province, with the Chinese group of converts supporting the Jesuits and the bishop supported by less accommodating Iberian mendicants (Dominicans and Franciscans).[37]
In 1724 the
Pope Pius XII's decision
The Rites controversy continued to hamper Church efforts to gain converts in China. In 1939, a few weeks after his election to the papacy, Pope Pius XII ordered the Congregation for the Evangelization of Peoples to relax certain aspects of Clement XI's and Benedict XIV's decrees.[39] After the Apostolic Vicars had received guarantees from the Manchukuo Government that confirmed the mere "civil" characteristics of the so-called "Chinese rites", the Holy See released, on 8 December 1939, a new decree, known as Plane Compertum, stating:
It is abundantly clear that in the regions of the Orient some ceremonies, although they may have been involved with pagan rites in ancient times, have—with the changes in customs and thinking over the course of centuries—retained merely the civil significance of piety towards the ancestors or of love of the fatherland or of courtesy towards one's neighbors.[40]
Overall, Plane Compertum asserted:
- Catholics are permitted to be present at ceremonies in honor of Confucius in Confucian temples or in schools;
- Erection of an image of Confucius or tablet with his name on is permitted in Catholic schools.
- Catholic magistrates and students are permitted to passively attend public ceremonies which have the appearance of superstition.
- It is licit and unobjectionable for head inclinations and other manifestations of civil observance before the deceased or their images.
- The oath on the Chinese rites, which was prescribed by Benedict XIV, is not fully in accord with recent regulations and is superfluous.[41]
According to Pope Pius XII's biographer, Jan Olav Smit, this meant that Chinese customs were no longer considered superstitious, but were an honourable way of esteeming one's relatives and therefore permitted by Catholic Christians.[42] Confucianism was also thus recognized as a philosophy and an integral part of Chinese culture rather than as a heathen religion in conflict with Catholicism. Shortly afterwards, in 1943, the Government of China established diplomatic relations with the Vatican. The Papal decree changed the ecclesiastical situation in China in an almost revolutionary way.[43]
As the Church began to flourish, Pius XII established a local ecclesiastical hierarchy, and, on 18 February 1946, named
See also
- Ancestral hall
- Ancestral tablet
- Kirishitan
- Malabar rites
- Rite (Christianity)
- Ritual family
References
Citations
- ^ a b c d Kuiper 2006.
- ^ Rule 2004.
- ^ Minamiki 1985, pp. 99–158.
- ^ Županov & Fabre 2018.
- S2CID 228824560.
- ^ "Sacrosanctum concilium". para. 37. Retrieved 9 February 2008.
- ^ Mantienne 1999, pp. 177–8.
- ^ a b c d Mantienne 1999, p. 178.
- OCLC 829792973.
- ^ Rule 2010.
- ^ Mantienne 1999, p. 179.
- ^ MEP 2008, p. 4.
- ^ MEP 2008, p. 5.
- ^ a b c Launay & Moussay 2008, pp. 77–83.
- ^ Brockey 2009, pp. 126–132.
- ^ a b c Mantienne 1999, p. 180.
- ^ Brockey 2009, pp. 52–53.
- ^ Marinescu 2008, p. 240.
- ^ Neill 1964, pp. 189–190.
- ^ Brockey 2009, pp. 167–169.
- ^ a b c d Tiedemann 2006, p. 463.
- OCLC 36621759.
- ^ Minamiki 1985, pp. 1–13.
- ^ Mantienne 1999, pp. 177–180.
- ^ Mungello 2012, p. 97.
- ^ Buc 2001, pp. 179–188.
- ^ Marinescu 2008, pp. 35–36.
- ^ Lach & Van Kley 1998, p. 195.
- ^ Marinescu 2008, p. 29.
- ^ New Advent website, Malabar Rites
- ^ Google Books, The Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church, edited by Andrew Louth
- ^ "中國教會的禮儀之爭(1715年)". Archived from the original on 24 September 2015. Retrieved 4 August 2013.
- ^ 现代欧洲中心论者对莱布尼茨的抱怨 Archived 4 July 2009 at the Wayback Machine
- ^ Mantienne 1999, pp. 177–182.
- ^ MacCaffrey 2004, p. 202.
- ^ Li 1969, p. 22.
- ^ Mungello 2012, p. 28.
- ^ Marinescu 2008, p. 265.
- ^ Minamiki 1985, pp. 195–203.
- ^ Minamiki 1985, p. 197.
- ^ "Plane compertum". Acta Apostolicae Sedis (PDF). Vol. 32. Rome: Typis Polyglottis Vaticanis. 1940. pp. 24–26.
- ^ Smit 1951, pp. 186–7.
- ^ a b Smit 1951, p. 188.
- ^ "Thomas Cardinal Tien Ken-hsin (Tienchensing), S.V.D." David M. Cheney. 18 November 2020. Retrieved 18 April 2021.
Sources
- Brockey, Liam Matthew (2009). Journey to the East: The Jesuit Mission to China, 1579–1724. Harvard University Press. ISBN 978-0-674-02881-4.
- Buc, Philippe (2001). The Dangers of Ritual. Between Early Medieval Texts and Social Scientific Theory. Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-0691144429.
- Kuiper, Kathleen (2006). "Chinese Rites Controversy (Roman Catholicism)". Encyclopædia Britannica.
- Lach, Donald Frederick; Van Kley, Edwin J. (1998). Asia in the Making of Europe. Vol. 3. University of Chicago Press. ISBN 978-0-226-46765-8.
- Launay, Marcel; Moussay, Gérard (2008). Les Missions étrangères: Trois siècles et demi d'histoire et d'aventure en Asie. Librairie Académique Perrin. ISBN 978-2-262-02571-7.
- Li, Dun Jen (1969). China in transition, 1517-1911. Van Nostrand Reinhold. ISBN 9780442771249.
- MacCaffrey, James (2004). The History of the Catholic Church From The Renaissance to the French Revolution. Vol. 1. Kessinger Publishing. ISBN 978-1-4191-2406-8.
- Mantienne, Frédéric (1999). Monseigneur Pigneau de Béhaine. Paris: Editions Eglises d'Asie. ISSN 1275-6865.
- Marinescu, Jocelyn M. N. (2008). Defending Christianity in China: The Jesuit defense of Christianity in the "Lettres édifiantes et curieuses" & "Ruijianlu" in relation to the Yongzheng proscription of 1724 (Thesis). Kansas State University. ProQuest 304548512.
- MEP (2008). Missions étrangères de Paris. 350 ans au service du Christ. Paris: Editeurs Malesherbes Publications. ISBN 978-2-916828-10-7.
- ISBN 978-0-8294-0457-9.
- Mungello, David E. (2012). The Great Encounter of China and the West: 1500–1800. Rowman & Littlefield. ISBN 978-1-4422-1975-5.
- Neill, Stephen (1964). History of Christian Missions. London: Penguin Books.
- Rule, Paul A. (2004). "The Chinese Rites Controversy: A Long Lasting Controversy in Sino-Western Cultural History" (PDF). Pacific Rim Report (32). Archived from the original (PDF) on 2 February 2017.
- Rule, Paul A. (2010). "What Were "The directives of Matteo Ricci" Regarding the Chinese Rites?" (PDF). Pacific Rim Report (54). Archived from the original (PDF) on 10 September 2016. Retrieved 4 March 2013.
- Smit, Jan Olav (1951). Pope Pius XII. London & Dublin: Burns Oates & Washburne.
- ISBN 978-0-521-81605-2.
- Županov, Ines G.; Fabre, Pierre Antoine, eds. (2018). The Rites Controversies in the Early Modern World. Leiden: Brill. ISBN 9789004366299.
Further reading
- Mungello, David E., ed. (1994). The Chinese rites controversy: Its history and meaning. Nettetal, Germany: Steyler. ISBN 9783805003483.
- Wu, Huiyi. (2017). Traduire la Chine au XVIIIe siècle: Les Jésuites traducteurs de textes chinois et le renouvellement des connaissances sur la Chine (1687 – ca. 1740). Paris: Honoré Champion. ISBN 978-2-7453-3182-3