Chinese calligraphy

Ancient China

Chinese characters can be retraced to 4000 BC signs (Lu & Aiken 2004).

In 2003, at the site of Xiaoshuangqiao, about 20 km south-east of the ancient Zhengzhou Shang City, ceramic inscriptions dating to 1435–1412 BC have been found by archaeologists. These writings are made in cinnabar paint. Thus, the dates of writing in China have been confirmed for the Middle Shang period.^[20]

The ceramic ritual vessel vats that bear these cinnabar inscriptions were all unearthed within the palace area of this site. They were unearthed mostly in the sacrificial pits holding cow skulls and cow horns, but also in other architectural areas. The inscriptions are written on the exterior and interior of the rim, and the exterior of the belly of the large type of vats. The characters are mostly written singly; character compounds or sentences are rarely seen.^[20]

The contemporary Chinese character's set principles were clearly visible in

For more than 2,000 years, China's literati—Confucian scholars and literary men who also served the government as officials—have been connoisseurs and practitioners of this art.

Scribes in China and Mongolia practiced the art of calligraphy to copying Buddhist texts. Since these texts were so venerated, the act of copying them down (and the beautiful calligraphy employed) was supposed to have a purifying effect on the soul. "The Act of copying them [Buddhist texts] could bring a scribe closer to perfection and earn him merit."[22]

In about 220 BC, the emperor Qin Shi Huang (秦始皇, 259–210 BC), the first to conquer the entire Chinese basin, imposed several reforms, among them Li Si's (李斯, 246 BC – 208 BC) character unification, which created a set of 3300 standardized xiǎozhuàn characters.^[23] Although the main writing implement of the time was already the brush, little paper survives from this period, and the main examples of this style are on steles.

The lìshū style (clerical script) which is more regularized, and in some ways similar to modern text, were also authorised under Qin Shi Huang.^{[24][self-published source?]} While it is a common mistake to believe that lishu was created by Cheng Miao alone during Qing Shi Huang's regime, lishu was developed from pre-Qin era to the Han dynasty (202 BC – 220 AD).

During the fourth century AD, calligraphy came to full maturity.^[21] The kǎishū style (traditional regular script)—still in use today—and attributed to Wang Xizhi (王羲之, 303 CE – 361 AD) and his followers, is even more regularized.^[24] reached its peak in the Tang dynasty, when famous calligraphers like Yan Zhenqing and Liu Gongquan produced most of the fine works in kaishu. Its spread was encouraged by Emperor Mingzong of Later Tang (926 CE – 933 AD), who ordered the printing of the classics using new wooden blocks in kaishu. Printing technologies here allowed shapes to stabilize. The kaishu shape of characters 1000 years ago was mostly similar to that at the end of Imperial China.^[24] But small changes have been made, for example in the shape of 广 which is not absolutely the same in the Kangxi Dictionary of 1716 as in modern books. The Kangxi and current shapes have tiny differences, while stroke order is still the same, according to old style.^[25]

Cursive styles such as xíngshū (semi-cursive or running script) and cǎoshū (cursive or sloppy script) are less constrained and faster, where more movements made by the writing implement are visible. These styles' stroke orders vary more, sometimes creating radically different forms. They are descended from clerical script, at the same time as regular script (Han dynasty 202 BC – 220 AD), but xíngshū and cǎoshū were used for personal notes only and were never used as a standard. Caoshu style was highly appreciated during the reign of Emperor Wu of Han (140 BC – 87 BC).^[24]

Styles which did not survive include bāfēnshū, a mix of 80% xiaozhuan style and 20% lishu.

Hard-pen calligraphy

This way of writing started to develop in the 1900s when fountain pens were imported into China from the west. Writing with fountain pens remained a convenience until the 1980s. With the Reform and Open, public focused on practicing hard-pen calligraphy. People usually use Chinese simplified characters in semi-cursive or regular style.^[15]

Printed and computer styles

Examples of modern printed styles are

Gallery along history

Different scripts of 馬 / 马 (horse) through history:

Materials and tools

The ink brush, ink, paper, and inkstone are essential implements of Chinese calligraphy. They are known together as the Four Treasures of the Study. In addition to these four tools, a water-dropper, desk pads and paperweights are also used by calligraphers.

Brush

A brush is the traditional writing instrument for Chinese calligraphy. The body of the brush is commonly made from bamboo or other materials such as wood, porcelain, or horn. The head of the brush is typically made from animal hair, such as weasel, rabbit, deer, goat, pig, tiger, wolf, etc. There is also a tradition in both China and Japan of making a brush using the hair of a newborn child, as a once-in-a-lifetime souvenir. This practice is associated with the legend of an ancient Chinese scholar who scored first in the imperial examinations by using such a personalized brush.^{[citation needed]} Calligraphy brushes are widely considered an extension of the calligrapher's arm.

Today, calligraphy may also be done using a pen.

Paper

Paper is frequently sold together with a paperweight and desk pad.

Some people insist that Chinese calligraphy should use special papers, such as Xuan paper, Maobian paper, Lianshi paper etc. Any modern papers can be used for brush writing. Because of the long-term uses, Xuan paper became well known by most of Chinese calligraphers.

In

Paperweights are used to hold down paper. A paperweight is often placed at the top of all but the largest pages to prevent slipping; for smaller pieces the left hand is also placed at the bottom of the page for support. Paperweights come in several types: some are oblong wooden blocks carved with calligraphic or pictorial designs; others are essentially small sculptures of people or animals. Like ink stones, paperweights are collectible works of art on their own right.

Desk pads

The

Ink is made from lampblack (soot) and binders, and comes in inksticks which must be rubbed with water on an inkstone until the right consistency is achieved. Much cheaper, pre-mixed bottled inks are now available, but these are used primarily for practice as stick inks are considered higher quality and chemical inks are more prone to bleeding over time, making them less suitable for use in hanging scrolls. Learning to rub the ink is an essential part of calligraphy study. Traditionally, Chinese calligraphy is written only in black ink, but modern calligraphers sometimes use other colors. Calligraphy teachers use a bright orange or red ink with which they write practice characters on which students trace, or to correct students' work.

Inkstone

Commonly made from stone, ceramic, or clay, an inkstone is used to grind the solid inkstick into liquid ink and to contain the ink once it is liquid. Chinese inkstones are highly prized as art objects and an extensive bibliography is dedicated to their history and appreciation, especially in China.

Seal and seal paste

Calligraphic works are usually completed by the calligrapher applying one or more

Technique

The shape, size, stretch, and type of hair in the brush, the color and density of the ink, as well as the absorptive speed and surface texture of the paper are the main physical parameters influencing the final result. The calligrapher also influences the result by the quantity of ink/water he lets the brush take up, then by the pressure, inclination, and direction he gives to the brush, producing thinner or bolder strokes, and smooth or toothed borders. Eventually, the speed, acceleration and deceleration of the writer's moves and turns, and the stroke order give "spirit" to the characters by influencing greatly their final shape. The "spirit" is referred to yi in Chinese calligraphy. Yi means "intention or idea" in Chinese. The more practice a calligrapher has, his or her technique will transfer from youyi (intentionally making a piece of work) to wuyi (creating art with unintentional moves). Wuyi is considered a higher stage for calligraphers, which require the calligrapher to have perfect control over the brush and wrist and following his or her heart.^[27]

Study

A page of Ouyang Xun's 九成宮醴泉銘,
Song dynasty rubbing

Yao Mengqi's copy.

Traditionally, the bulk of the study of calligraphy is composed of copying strictly exemplary works from the apprentice's master or from reputed calligraphers, thus learning them by rote. The master showing the 'right way' to draw items, which the apprentice have to copy strictly, continuously, until the move becomes instinctive and the copy perfect. Deviation from the model is seen as a failure.

Since the development of regular script, nearly all calligraphers have started their study by imitating exemplary models of regular script. A beginning student may practice writing the character 永 (Chinese: yǒng, eternal) for its abundance of different kinds of strokes and difficulty in construction. The Eight Principles of Yong refers to the eight different strokes in the character, which some argue summarizes the different strokes in regular script.

How the brush is held depends on the calligrapher and which calligraphic genre is practiced. Commonly, the brush is held vertically straight gripped between the thumb and middle finger. The index finger lightly touches the upper part of the shaft of the brush (stabilizing it) while the ring and little fingers tuck under the bottom of the shaft, leaving a space inside the palm. Alternatively, the brush is held in the right hand between the thumb and the index finger, very much like a Western pen. A calligrapher may change his or her grip depending on the style and script. For example, a calligrapher may grip higher for cursive and lower for regular script.

In Japan, smaller pieces of Japanese calligraphy are traditionally written while in seiza. In modern times, however, writers frequently practice calligraphy seated on a chair at a table. Larger pieces may be written while standing; in this case the paper is usually placed directly on the floor, but some calligraphers use an easel.

Basic calligraphy instruction is part of the regular school curriculum in both China and Japan and specialized programs of study exist at the higher education level in China, Japan, Korea, and Taiwan. In contemporary times, debate emerged on the limits of this copyist tradition within the modern art scenes, where innovation is the rule, while changing lifestyles, tools, and colors are also influencing new waves of masters.^[2][28]

Chinese calligraphy is being promoted in Chinese schools to counter Character amnesia brought on by technology usage.^[29]

In recent study, Chinese calligraphy writing have been used as cognitive intervention strategy among older adults or people with mild cognitive impairment. For example, in a recent randomized control trial experiment, calligraphy writing enhanced both working memory and attention control compared to controlled groups.^[30]

In contemporary China, a small but significant number of practitioners have made calligraphy their profession, and provincial and national professional societies exist, membership in which conferring considerable prestige.

Rules of modern calligraphy

This section contains instructions, advice, or how-to content. Please help rewrite the content so that it is more encyclopedic or move it to Wikiversity, Wikibooks, or Wikivoyage. (August 2022)

While appreciating calligraphy depends on individual preferences, there are established traditional rules and those who repeatedly violate them are not considered legitimate calligraphers.[6] The famous modern Chinese calligrapher Tian Yunzhang, member of the Chinese Calligrapher Association, summarized rules of modern calligraphy. The following rules are from One Question Every Day, One Word Every Day (每日一题，每日一字 a calligraphy video column with deep analysis of different characters, lectured by Tian Yunzhang. Among these rules are:

• Correct way of writing.^[6] A correctly written character should be composed in a way that is accepted as correct by legitimate calligraphers. Calligraphic works often use variant Chinese characters, which are deemed correct or incorrect case-by-case, but in general, more popular variants are more likely to be correct. Correct characters are written in the traditional stroke order and not a modern standard.
• Legibility.^[6] As calligraphy is the method of writing well, a calligraphic work must be recognizable as script, and furthermore be easily legible to those familiar with the script style, although it may be illegible to those unfamiliar with the script style. For example, many people cannot read cursive, but a calligraphic work in cursive can still be considered good if those familiar with cursive can read it.
• Conciseness.^[6] This is in contrast to Western calligraphy where flourishes are acceptable and often desirable. Good Chinese calligraphy must be unadorned script. It must also be in black ink unless there is a reason to write in other ink.
• Proper and prominent relation to the context.^[6] All reputable calligraphers in China were well educated and well read. In addition to calligraphy, they were skilled in other areas, most likely painting, poetry, music, opera, martial arts, and Go. Therefore, their abundant education contributed to their calligraphy. A calligrapher practicing another calligrapher's characters would always know what the text means, when it was created, and in what circumstances. When they write, their characters' shape and weight agrees with the rhythm of the phrases, especially in less constrained styles such as semi-cursive and cursive. One who does not know the meaning of the characters they write, but varies their shape and weight on a whim, does not produce good calligraphy.
• Aesthetically pleasing to the eye.^[6] Generally, characters that are written correctly, legibly, concisely, and in the correct context are also aesthetically pleasing to some degree. Characters that violate the above rules are often less aesthetically pleasing. An experienced calligrapher will consider the quality of the line, the structure of each character which the lines are placed, the compositional organization of groups of characters. Throughout the work, the brush line of light or dark, dry or wet should record the process of the artist creating the work vividly.^[33]

Influences

Calligraphy in Japan, Korea, and Vietnam

The Japanese, Koreans, and Vietnamese

In the case of Vietnamese calligraphy, the same styles and techniques have evolved to apply to Chữ Nôm and Latin script.^[36]

Other arts

Water calligraphy

The existence of temporary calligraphy, or water calligraphy, is also to be noted. This is the practice of water-only calligraphy on the floor which dries out within minutes. This practice is especially appreciated by the new generation of retired Chinese in public parks in China.

Ink wash painting

Calligraphy has influenced ink wash painting, which is accomplished using similar tools and techniques. Calligraphy has influenced most major art styles in East Asia, including Ink wash painting, a style of Chinese, Japanese, Korean painting, and Vietnamese based entirely on calligraphy.

Notable Chinese calligraphers

Qin dynasty

• Li Si 李斯 (280–208BC)

Han dynasty

• Cai Yong 蔡邕(132–192)
• Zhang Zhi 張芝 (?–192)
• Zhong Yao 鍾繇 (151–230)

Jin dynasty

• Wei Shuo 衞鑠 (272–349)
• Lu Ji 陸機 (261–303)
• Wang Xizhi 王羲之 (303–361)
• Wang Xianzhi 王獻之 (344–386)
• Wang Xun 王珣 (349–400)

Sui dynasty

• Zhiyong 智永 (ca. 6th century)
• Ding Daohu 丁道護 (ca. 6th century)

Tang dynasty

• Ouyang Xun 歐陽詢 (557–641)
• Yu Shinan 虞世南 (558–638)
• Chu Suiliang 褚遂良 (597–658)
• Huairen 懷仁 (ca. 7th century)
• Emperor Taizong of Tang 唐太宗 李世民 (599–649)
• Li Yangbing 李陽冰 (721/2–785)
• Zhang Xu 張旭 (658–747)
• Yan Zhenqing 顏眞卿 (709–785)
• Huaisu 懷素 (737–799)
• Liu Gongquan 柳公權 (778–865)
• Du Mu 杜牧 (803–852)

Five Dynasties

• Yang Ningshi [zh] 楊凝式 (873–954)

Song dynasty

• Cai Xiang 蔡襄 (1012–1067)
• Su Shi 蘇軾 (1037–1101)
• Huang Tingjian 黃庭堅 (1045–1105)
• Mi Fu 米黻 (1051–1107)
• Emperor Huizong of Song 宋徽宗 趙佶 (1082–1135)
• Emperor Gaozong of Song 宋高宗 趙構 (1107–1187)
• Zhu Xi 朱熹 (1130–1200)

Yuan dynasty

• Zhao Mengfu 趙孟頫 (1254–1322)
• Ni Zan 倪瓚 (1301–1374)

Ming dynasty

• Tang Yin 唐寅 (1470–1524)
• Wen Zhengming 文徵明 (1470–1559)
• Dong Qichang 董其昌 (1555–1636)
• Huang Ruheng 黃汝亨 (1558–1626)
• Wang Duo 王鐸 (1592–1652)
• Fu Shan 傅山 (1607–1684)

Qing dynasty

• Zhu Da
  朱耷 (1626–1705)
• Zheng Xie 鄭燮 (1693–1765)
• Yang Shoujing 楊守敬 (1839–1915)

Modern times

• Wu Changshuo 吳昌碩 (1844–1927)
• Kang Youwei 康有為 (1858–1927)
• Hong Yi 弘一法師 (1880–1942)

Gallery

• 
  A copy of Wang Xizhi's Lantingji Xu, the most famous Chinese calligraphic work.
• 
  Part of a stone rubbing of 黄庭经 by Wang Xizhi
• 
  A copy of 上虞帖 by Wang Xizhi
• 
  A Tang dynasty copy of 新婦地黃湯帖 by Wang Xianzhi
• 
  Part of a stone rubbing of 九成宮醴泉銘 ^[zh] by Ouyang Xun
• 
  Part of a stone rubbing of 雁塔聖教序 by Chu Suiliang
• 
  Part of a stone rubbing of 顏勤禮碑 by Yan Zhenqing
• 
  Cry for noble Saichō by Emperor Saga
• 
  A work of semi-cursive and cursive by Mi Fu
• 
  A work by Emperor Huizong of Song
• 
  Buiseonrando by

  Kim Jeonghui
• 
  An edict written by Emperor Cảnh Hưng.

The Calligraphy Model "Sunny after Snow" by Wang Xizhi

See also

References