Chinese cuisine
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Chinese cuisine comprises
, can now be found worldwide.The world's earliest eating establishments recognizable as restaurants in the modern sense first emerged in Song dynasty China during the 11th and 12th centuries.[1][2] Street food became an integral aspect of Chinese food culture during the Tang dynasty, and the street food culture of much of Southeast Asia was established by workers imported from China during the late 19th century.[3]
The preferences for seasoning and cooking techniques of Chinese provinces depend on differences in social class, religion, historical background, and ethnic groups. Geographic features including mountains, rivers, forests, and deserts also have a strong effect on the local available ingredients, considering that the climate of China varies from tropical in the south to subarctic in the northeast. Imperial royal and noble preference also plays a role in the change of Chinese cuisine. Because of imperial expansion, immigration, and trading, ingredients and cooking techniques from other cultures have been integrated into Chinese cuisines over time and Chinese culinary influences have spread worldwide.
There are numerous regional, religious, and ethnic styles of Chinese cuisine found within China and abroad. Chinese cuisine is highly diverse and most frequently categorised into provincial divisions, although these province-level classifications consist of many more styles within themselves. During the
Chinese cuisine is deeply intertwined with traditional Chinese medicine, such as in the practise of Chinese food therapy. Color, scent and taste are the three traditional aspects used to describe Chinese food,[8] as well as the meaning, appearance, and nutrition of the food. Cooking should be appraised with respect to the ingredients used, knife work, cooking time, and seasoning.
History
Pre-Tang dynasty
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Chinese society greatly valued
By the time of
The Zhaohun (4-3rd c. BC) gives some examples: turtle ragout, honey cakes and beer (chilled with ice).
During
By the Later Han period (2nd century), writers[who?] frequently complained of lazy aristocrats who did nothing but sit around all day eating smoked meats and roasts.
During the Han dynasty, the Chinese developed methods of food preservation for military rations during campaigns such as drying meat into jerky and cooking, roasting, and drying grain.[15] Chinese legends claim that the roasted, flat bread shaobing was brought back from the Xiyu (the Western Regions, a name for Central Asia) by the Han dynasty General Ban Chao, and that it was originally known as hubing (胡餅, lit. "barbarian bread"). The shaobing is believed to be descended from the hubing.[16] Shaobing is believed to be related to the Persian nan and Central Asian nan, as well as the Middle Eastern pita.[17][18][19][20] Foreign westerners made and sold sesame cakes in China during the Tang dynasty.[21]
During the
The Han Chinese rebel Wang Su who received asylum in the Xianbei Northern Wei after fleeing from Southern Qi, at first could not stand eating dairy products like goat's milk and meat like mutton and had to consume tea and fish instead, but after a few years he was able to eat yogurt and lamb, and the Xianbei Emperor asked him which of the foods of China (Zhongguo) he preferred, fish vs mutton and tea vs yogurt.[23][24][25][26]
Post-Tang dynasty
The great migration of Chinese people south during the invasions preceding and during the Song dynasty increased the relative importance of southern Chinese staples such as rice and congee. Su Dongpo has improved the red braised pork as Dongpo pork.[27] The dietary and culinary habits also changed greatly during this period, with many ingredients such as soy sauce and Central Asian influenced foods becoming widespread and the creation of important cookbooks such as the Shanjia Qinggong (Chinese: 山家清供; pinyin: shanjia qinggong) and the Wushi Zhongkuilu (Chinese: 吳氏中饋錄; pinyin: wushi zhoungkuilu) showing the respective esoteric foods and common household cuisine of the time.[28]
The
As part of the last leg of the
During the Qing dynasty, Chinese gastronomes such as
As the pace of life increases in modern China, fast food like fried noodles, fried rice and gaifan (dish over rice) become more and more popular.
Regional cuisines
There are a variety of styles of cooking in China, but most Chinese chefs classified eight regional cuisines according to their distinct tastes and local characteristics. A number of different styles contribute to Chinese cuisine but perhaps the best known and most influential are
Based on the raw materials and ingredients used, the method of preparation and cultural differences, a variety of foods with different flavors and textures are prepared in different regions of the country. Many traditional regional cuisines rely on basic methods of
In addition, the "rice theory" attempts to describe cultural differences between north and south China; in the north, noodles are more consumed due to wheat being widely grown whereas in the south, rice is more preferred as it has historically been more cultivated there.[37]
Staple foods
Chinese ancestors successfully planted millet, rice, and other grains about 8,000 to 9,000 years ago.[38] Wheat, another staple, took another three or four thousand years. For the first time, grains provided people with a steady supply of food. Because of the lack of various foods, Chinese people had to adapt to new eating habits. Meat was scarce, and so people cooked with small amounts of meat and rice or noodles.[39]
Rice
Wheat
In wheat-farming areas in
Noodles
Soybean products
There are many kinds of soybean products, including tofu skin, smoked tofu, dried tofu, and fried tofu.
Stinky tofu is fermented tofu. Like blue cheese or durian, it has a very distinct, potent and strong smell, and is an acquired taste. Hard stinky tofu is often deep-fried and paired with soy sauce or salty spice. Soft stinky tofu is usually used as a spread on steamed buns.
Sufu is one other type of fermented tofu that goes through ageing process. The color (red, white, green) and flavor profile can determine the type of sufu it is. This kind of tofu is usually eaten alongside breakfast rice.[44]
Soybean milk is soybean-based milk. It is a morning beverage, and it has many benefits to human health.[45]
Vegetables
Apart from vegetables that can be commonly seen, some unique
Because of different climate and soil conditions, cultivars of green beans, peas, and mushrooms can be found in rich variety.
A variety of dried or pickled vegetables are also processed, especially in drier or colder regions where fresh vegetables were hard to get out of season.
Herbs and seasonings
To add extra flavor to the dishes, many Chinese cuisines also contain dried Chinese mushrooms, dried baby shrimp, dried tangerine peel,[48] and dried Sichuan chillies.
When it comes to
Desserts and snacks
Generally, seasonal fruits serve as the most common form of dessert consumed after dinner.[49]
Dim sum (点心), originally means a small portion of food, can refer to dessert, or pastries. Later to avoid disambiguation, tian dian (甜点) and gao dian (糕点) are used to describe desserts and pastries.
Traditionally, Chinese desserts are sweet foods and dishes that are served with tea, usually during the meal,[50][51] or at the end of meals in Chinese cuisine.[52]
Besides being served as dim sum along with tea, pastries are used for celebration of traditional festivals.
A wide variety of
Another cold dessert is called baobing, which is
Chinese dessert soups are typically sweet and served hot.[54]
European pastries are also seen in China, like mille-feuille, crème brûlée, and cheesecake, but they are generally not as popular because the Chinese preference of dessert is mildly sweet and less oily.[citation needed]
Many types of street foods, which vary from region to region, can be eaten as snacks or light dinner. Prawn crackers are an often-consumed snack in Southeast China.[citation needed]
Dairy products
Chinese in earlier dynasties evidently drank milk and ate dairy products, although not necessarily from cows, but perhaps kumis (fermented mare's milk) or goat's milk.
Historically, many Chinese chefs tried not to use milk, because of the high rate of
Cold dishes
Cold dishes are usually served before the main meal. Besides salad and pickles as appetizers, they can range from jelly, beancurd, noodle salad, cooked meat, and sausages to jellyfish or cold soups.
Chinese sausages vary from region to region. The most common sausage is made of pork and pork fat. The flavor is generally salty-sweet in Southern China. In other parts of China, sausages are salted to be preserved. Chinese sausage is prepared in many different ways, including oven-roasting, stir-frying, and steaming.[56]
Soups
In some part of South China, soups are served between the cold dishes and the main dishes. In other parts of China, soups are served between the main dish and staple foods, before desserts or fruit salad. There are many traditional Chinese soups, such as
Drinks
Tea plays an important role in Chinese dining culture. In China, there are two main types of tea, one is made from dried tea leaves, the other one is made by extracts from tea leaves.[58] Baijiu and huangjiu as strong alcoholic beverages are preferred by many people as well. Wine is not so popular as other drinks in China that are consumed whilst dining, although they are usually available in the menu.
Tea
As well as with dim sum, many Chinese drink their tea with snacks such as nuts, plums, dried fruit (in particular jujube), small sweets, melon seeds, and waxberry.[32] China was the earliest country to cultivate and drink tea, which is enjoyed by people from all social classes.[59] Tea processing began after the Qin and Han dynasties.[59]
The different types of Chinese tea include black, white, green, yellow, oolong, and dark tea. Chinese tea is often classified into several different categories according to the species of plant from which it is sourced, the region in which it is grown, and the method of production used. Some of these types are
One of the most ubiquitous accessories in modern China, after a wallet or purse and an umbrella, is a double-walled insulated glass thermos with tea leaves in the top behind a strainer.
Alcoholic beverages
The importance of
While fermented grain beverages have been brewed in China for over 9,000 years, it has been long overshadowed by stronger alcohol like Baijiu and Huangjiu.[62]
Herbal drinks
Chinese herb tea, also known as medicinal herbal tea, is a kind of tea made from Chinese medicinal herbs.[63]
Other beverages
Soy milk, almond milk, walnut milk and coconut milk are also drunk during the meal in different regions. In some parts of China, hawthorn and jujube juice are preferred. A small shot of fruit vinegar is served as an appetizer in Shanxi.
Outside China
Where there are historical immigrant Chinese populations, the style of food has evolved and been adapted to local tastes and ingredients, and modified by the local cuisine, to greater or lesser extents. This has resulted in a deep Chinese influence on other national cuisines such as Cambodian cuisine, Filipino cuisine, Singaporean cuisine, Thai cuisine and Vietnamese cuisine.
Chinatowns across the world have been instrumental in shaping the national cuisines of their respective countries, such as the introduction of a street food culture to Thailand in Bangkok Chinatown. There are also a large number of forms of fusion cuisine, often popular in the country in question. Some, such as ramen (Japanese Chinese cuisine), which originated in Yokohama Chinatown, have become popular internationally.
Deep-fried meat combined with sweet and sour sauce as a cooking style receives an enormous preference outside of China. Therefore, many similar international Chinese cuisines are invented based on sweet and sour sauce, including Sweet and sour chicken (Europe and North America), Manchurian chicken (India) or tangsuyuk (South Korea). The Hawaiian pizza was inspired by Chinese sweet and sour flavors.
Apart from the host country, the dishes developed in overseas Chinese cuisines are heavily dependent on the cuisines derived from the origin of the Chinese immigrants. In Korean Chinese cuisine, the dishes derive primarily from Shandong cuisine while Filipino Chinese cuisine is strongly influenced by Fujian cuisine. American Chinese cuisine has distinctive dishes (such as chop suey) originally based on Cantonese cuisine, which are more popular among non-Chinese Americans than with Chinese Americans themselves.[64][65]
- American Chinese cuisine
- Australian Chinese cuisine
- Mango pancake, dim sim, XO sauce pipis
- British Chinese cuisine
- Chicken balls, Jar jow
- Burmese Chinese cuisine
- Canadian Chinese cuisine
- Caribbean Chinese cuisine
- Cha chee kai, bangamary ding
- Filipino Chinese cuisine
- Indian Chinese cuisine
- Gobi manchurian, Manchow soup
- Indonesian Chinese cuisine
- Japanese Chinese cuisine
- Gyoza, Kakuni, Tenshindon
- Korean Chinese cuisine
- Chinese Latin American cuisine
- Peruvian Chinese cuisine (Chifa)
- Puerto Rican Chinese cuisine
- Carne Ahumada
- Malaysian Chinese cuisine
- New Zealand Chinese cuisine
- Pakistani Chinese cuisine
Dining etiquette
Youths should not begin eating before their elders do. When eating from a bowl, one should not hold it with its bottom part, because it resembles the act of begging. Chopsticks are the main eating utensils for Chinese food, which can be used to cut and pick up food.[66] When someone is taking a break from eating at the table, they should not put the chopstick into the rice vertically, because it resembles the Chinese traditional funeral tribute, which involves putting chopsticks inside a bowl of rice vertically. It is considered inappropriate to use knives on the dining table.[67] Chopsticks should not be waved around in the air or played with. Food should first be taken from the plate in front. It is considered impolite to stare at a plate. Watching TV, using mobile phones or doing other activities while eating is considered in poor taste. If an older person puts food in a younger person's bowl, the younger person should thank them.[68]
Chinese culture has guidelines in how and when food are eaten. Chinese people typically eat three meals a day. Breakfast is served around 6–9am, lunch is served around 12–2pm, and dinner is served around 6–9pm.[69] Within the Chinese culture, families do follow different traditions. In some families, the elderly members and youngsters get their meal first, then the mother and father, and then the children and teenagers.[69] Other families have the male and female eat separately at different seating area.[39] Whatever tradition the family decide to follow, it is intended to show respect to members of the family. Late night meals served from 9pm-4am and similar to the Western concept of supper is known as siu yeh.
Relation to Chinese philosophy and religion
Food plays various roles in social and cultural life. In
The Kaifeng Jews in Henan province once had their own Chinese Jewish cuisine but the community has largely died out in the modern era and not much is known about the specifics of their cuisine but they did influence foods eaten in their region and some of their dishes remain.[70] Chinese dishes with purported Kaifeng Jewish roots include Kaifeng xiao long bao, Mayuxing bucket-shaped chicken, Chrysanthemum hot pot, and Four Treasures.[71]
Food also plays a role in daily life. The formality of the meal setting can signify what kind of relationship people have with one another, and the type of food can indicate ones' social status and their country of origin.[39] In a formal setting, up to sixteen of any combination of hot and cold dishes would be served to respect the guests. On the other hand, in a casual setting, people would eat inexpensive meals such as at food stalls or homemade food. The typical disparity in food in the Chinese society between the wealthy and everyone below that group lies in the rarity and cost of the food or ingredient, such as shark fins and bear paws.[39]
Depending on whether one chooses to have rice or a meal that is made of wheat flour such as bread or noodles as their main source of food, people within a similar culture or of a different background can make an assumption of the other's country of origin from the south or north of China. Different foods have different symbolic meanings. Mooncakes and dumplings are symbolic of the Mid-autumn festival and the Spring Festival, respectively.[39] Pear symbolizes bad luck due to its similarity in pronunciation of 'away' in the native language and noodle means living a long life for its length.[39][69]
In Chinese philosophy, food frequently conveys a message. A Chinese philosophy I Ching says, "Gentlemen use eating as a way to attain happiness. They should be aware of what they say, and refrain from eating too much."[72]
See also
- A Bite of China by CCTV
- The eight major traditions of Chinese cuisine
- Other traditions in Chinese cuisine
- List of Chinese bakery products
- List of Chinese desserts
- List of Chinese dishes
- List of Chinese sauces
- List of Chinese soups
- Chinese regional cuisine
- Chinese food therapy
- History of Chinese cuisine
- Customs and etiquette in Chinese dining
- Chinese cooking techniques
- Chinese Cuisine Training Institute
- List of restaurants in China
- Pizza in China
References
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Sources
- Gernet, Jacques (1962). Daily Life in China on the Eve of the Mongol Invasion, 1250–1276. Stanford University Press. ISBN 0-8047-0720-0.
Further reading
History
- Anderson, Eugene N. (1988). The Food of China. New Haven: Yale University Press. ISBN 0300047398.
- Chang, Kwang-chih (1977). Food in Chinese Culture: Anthropological and Historical Perspectives. New Haven: Yale University Press. ISBN 0300019386.
- David R. Knechtges, "A Literary Feast: Food in Early Chinese Literature," Journal of the American Oriental Society 106.1 (1986): 49–63.
- Newman, Jacqueline M. (2004). Food Culture in China. Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press. ISBN 0313325812.
- Roberts, J. A. G. (2002). China to Chinatown: Chinese Food in the West. London: Reaktion. ISBN 1861891334.
- Sterckx, Roel. Food, Sacrifice, and Sagehood in Early China. New York: Cambridge University Press, 2011 (2015).
- Sterckx, Roel. Chinese Thought. From Confucius to Cook Ding. London: Penguin, 2019.
- Swislocki, Mark (2009). Culinary Nostalgia: Regional Food Culture and the Urban Experience in Shanghai. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press. ISBN 9780804760126.
- Waley-Cohen, Joanna (2007). "Celebrated Cooks of China's Past". Flavor & Fortune. 14 (4): 5–7, 24. Archived from the original on 2 April 2015.
- Endymion Wilkinson, "Chinese Culinary History (Feature Review)," China Review International 8.2 (Fall 2001): 285–302.
- ISBN 978-0674260184.
- Wu, David Y. H.; Cheung, Sidney C. H. (2002). The Globalization of Chinese Food. Richmond, Surrey: Curzon. ISBN 0700714030.
Cookbooks
- Buwei Yang Chao. How to Cook and Eat in Chinese. (New York: John Day, 1945; revisions and reprints).
- ISBN 0393051773.
- Fuchsia Dunlop. Revolutionary Chinese Cookbook: Recipes from Hunan Province. (New York: Norton, 2007). ISBN 0393062228.
- Fuchsia Dunlop. Shark's Fin and Sichuan Pepper: A Sweet-Sour Memoir of Eating in China. (New York: Norton, 2008). ISBN 9780393066579.
- Fuchsia Dunlop. Every Grain of Rice: Simple Chinese Home Cooking (2012). ISBN 9781408802526
- Emily Hahn, Recipes, The Cooking of China. (Alexandria, Va.: Time-Life Books, Foods of the World, 1981).
- Hsiang-Ju Lin and Tsuifeng Lin. Chinese Gastronomy. (London: Nelson, 1969; rpr.). ISBN 0171470575.
- Yan-Kit So. Classic Food of China. (London: Macmillan, rpr 1994, 1992). ISBN 9780333576717.
- Martin Yan. Martin Yan's Chinatown Cooking: 200 Traditional Recipes from 11 Chinatowns around the World. (New York: Morrow, 2002). ISBN 0060084758.
- Georgina Freedman. Cooking South of The Clouds: Recipes and Stories From China's Yunnan Province. (Octopus; Kyle, 2018). ISBN 9780857834980.
External links
- K.C. Chang "Food in Chinese Culture" Asia Society
- Chinese cuisine at Curlie
- "Chinese food made easy" at the BBC
- "Chinese Culinary History (Websites for Research) Stony Brook University Libraries.
