Education in China
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Post-secondary diploma | 19%3 | |
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1 Including junior and senior secondary students; 2 Among 25-64 year-olds, including junior and senior secondary attainments; 3 Among 25-64 year-olds, including associate, bachelor and graduate degrees. |
Education in China is primarily managed by the state-run
Compulsory education includes six years of elementary school, typically starting at the age of six and finishing at the age of twelve,[5] followed by three years of middle school and three years of high school.
Laws in China regulating the system of education include the Regulation on Academic Degrees, the Compulsory Education Law, the Teachers Law, the Education Law, the Law on Vocational Education, and the Law on Higher Education.[citation needed]
In 2020, the Ministry of Education reported an increase of new entrants of 34.4 million students entering compulsory education, bringing the total number of students who attend compulsory education to 156 million.[6] In 2003, central and local governments in China supported 1,552 institutions of higher learning (colleges and universities), along with their 725,000 professors and 11 million students.
In 1985, the government abolished tax-funded
Chinese investment in research and development has grown by 20 percent per year since 1999, exceeding $100 billion in 2011. As many as 1.5 million science and engineering students graduated from Chinese universities in 2006. By 2008, China had published 184,080 papers in recognized international journals – a seven-fold increase from 1996.
China has also been a top destination for international students and as of 2013, China was the most popular country in Asia for international students and ranked third overall among countries.[13] China is now the leading destination globally for Anglophone African students[14] and is host of the second largest international students population in the world.[15] There were 17 Chinese universities on lists of the global top 200 behind only the United States and the United Kingdom in terms of the overall representation in the 2023 Aggregate Ranking of Top Universities, a composite ranking system combining three of the world's most influential university rankings (ARWU+QS+ THE).[16]
Shanghai, Beijing, Jiangsu and Zhejiang outperformed all other education systems in the Programme for International Student Assessment.[17] China's educational system has been noted for its emphasis on rote memorization and test preparation. However, PISA spokesman Andreas Schleicher says that China has moved away from learning by rote in recent years.[18] According to Schleicher, Russia performs well in rote-based assessments, but not in PISA, whereas China does well in both rote-based and broader assessments.[19]
History
Improving population-wide literacy was the focus of education in the early years of the People's Republic of China.[20] In 1949, the literacy rate was only between 20 and 40%.[20] The communist government focused on improving literacy through both formal schooling and literacy campaigns.[20] In the first sixteen years of communist governance, elementary school enrollment tripled, secondary school enrollment increased by a factor of 8.5, and college enrollment more than quadrupled.[21]
Since the end of the
As a result of continual intra-party realignments, official policy has alternated between
The post-
The reorientation of educational priorities paralleled Deng Xiaoping's strategy for economic development. Emphasis also was placed on the further training of the already-educated elite, who would carry on the modernization program in the coming decades. A renewed emphasis on modern science and technology led to the adoption of an outward-looking policy that encouraged learning and borrowing from abroad for advanced training in a wide range of scientific fields, beginning in 1976.
Beginning at the Third Plenum of the Eleventh National Party Congress Central Committee in December 1978, intellectuals were encouraged to pursue research in support of the Four Modernizations and, as long as they complied with the party's "Four Cardinal Principles" they were given relatively free rein. When the party and the government determined that the structures of the four cardinal principles had been stretched beyond tolerable limits, they might restrict intellectual expression.
Literature and the arts also experienced a great revival in the late 1970s and 1980s. Traditional forms flourished once again, and many new kinds of literature and cultural expression were introduced from abroad.
In 2003, China's
Development
Since the 1950s, China has been providing a nine-year compulsory education to what amounts to a fifth of the world's population. By 1999, primary school education had become generalized in 90% of China, and mandatory nine-year compulsory education now effectively covered 85% of the population. The education funding provided by the central and provincial governments varies across regions, and those in the rural areas are notably lower than those in major urban areas. Families supplement money provided to the school by the government with tuition fees.
For non-compulsory education, China adopts a shared-cost mechanism, charging tuition at a certain percentage of the cost. Meanwhile, to ensure that students from low-income families have access to higher education, the government has initiated ways of assistance, with policies and measures for scholarships, work-study programs and subsidies for students with special economic difficulties, tuition reduction or exemption and state stipends.
Illiteracy in the young and mid-aged population has fallen from over 80 percent down to five percent. The system trained some 60 million mid-or high-level professionals and almost 400 million laborers to the junior or senior high school level. Today, 250 million Chinese get three levels of school education (elementary, junior, and senior high school), doubling the rate of increase in the rest of the world during the same period. Net elementary school enrollment has reached 98.9 percent, and the gross enrollment rate in junior high schools 94.1 percent.[23] As of 2015[update], the government-operated primary and lower secondary (junior high) schools in China have 28.8 million students.[24]
Chinese high school students won multiple gold medals every year consistently at many International Science Olympiad Competitions like the International Biology Olympiad,[25] the International Olympiad on Astronomy and Astrophysics,[26] the International Olympiad in Informatics,[27] the International Earth Science Olympiad,[28] the International Mathematical Olympiad,[29] the International Physics Olympiad[30] and the International Chemistry Olympiad.[31] As of 2022, China ranks first in the all-time medal count at the International Mathematical Olympiad with highest goal medals since its first participation in 1985.[32] China also ranks first in the all-time medal count at the International Physics Olympiad, the International Chemistry Olympiad, and the International Olympiad in Informatics.[33][34][35]
In a 2009 survey from the
In the 1980s, the MBA was virtually unknown but by 2004 there were 47,000 MBAs, trained at 62 MBA schools. Many people also apply for international professional qualifications, such as EMBA and MPA; close to 10,000 MPA students are enrolled in 47 schools of higher learning, including Peking University and Tsinghua University. The education market has rocketed, with training and testing for professional qualifications, such as computer and foreign languages, thriving. Continuing education is the trend, once in one's life schooling has become lifelong learning.
Investment in education has increased in recent years; the proportion of the overall budget allocated to education has been increased by one percentage point every year since 1998. According to a
Education policy
China's Five-Year Plans are an important means of coordinating education policy.[43]: 149
Deng Xiaoping's far-ranging educational reform policy, which involved all levels of the education system, aimed to narrow the gap between China and other developing countries. Thus, modernizing education was critical to modernizing China, which included; devolution of educational management from the central to the local level as the means chosen to improve the education system. Centralized authority was not abandoned, however, as evidenced by the creation of the State Education Commission.
Academically, the goals of reform were to enhance and universalize elementary and junior middle school education; to increase the number of schools and qualified teachers, and to develop vocational and technical education. A uniform standard for curricula, textbooks, examinations, and teacher qualifications (especially at the middle-school level) was established, and considerable autonomy and variations in and among the autonomous regions, provinces, and special municipalities were allowed.[44] Further, the system of enrollment and job assignment in higher education was changed, with government control over colleges and universities was reduced.
Intergenerational transmission of socialist ideas is an explicit commitment of China's educational system.[45] In 1991, the communist party launched the nationwide Patriotic Education Campaign.[46]: 99 The major focus of the campaign was within education, and text books were revised to reduce narratives of class struggle and to emphasize the party's role in ending the century of humiliation.[46]: 99 As part of the campaign, Patriotic Education Bases were established, and schools ranging from primary to the college levels were required to take students to sites of significance to the Chinese Revolution.[46]: 99
At a national education conference held in Beijing on 10 September 2018, Chinese Communist Party general secretary Xi Jinping emphasized the importance of teaching Chinese socialism to the country's youth, in order to foster support for the Communist Party and its policies.[47]
Xi has implemented a number of education reforms.[48]: 155 Schools are required to adjust their opening hours to be consistent with work hours in their area so that parents can pick-up their children directly after work (in order to reduce reliance on private classes for adult supervision after school hours).[48]: 155 Schools must also promote health by requiring outdoor physical education classes daily and providing eye examinations twice per term.[48]: 155 Educational reforms have also limited the amount of homework students can be assigned.[48]: 156
As part of Xi's 2021 directive on "double lessening" (reducing excessive off-campus tutoring and reducing homework burdens), schools may not assign homework to children to grades one and two, homework is limited to no more than 60 minutes for children in grades three to six, and no more than 90 minutes for middle school children.[48]: 156 In July 2021, China enacted a series of rules designed to shutdown the private tutoring.[48]: 156
Since September 2021, private schools providing compulsory education can no longer be controlled by foreign entities or individuals.[48]: 57 Only Chinese nationals may serve on their Boards of Directors.[48]: 157
Education system
Year | Ages | Stage |
---|---|---|
1st grade | 6–7 | Elementary
|
2nd grade | 7–8 | |
3rd grade | 8–9 | |
4th grade | 9–10 | |
5th grade | 10–11 | |
6th grade | 11–12 | |
Chu-1 (7th grade) | 12–13 | Middle school |
Chu-2 (8th grade) | 13–14 | |
Chu-3 (9th grade) | 14–15 | |
Gao-1 (10th grade) | 15–16 | High school
|
Gao-2 (11th grade) | 16–17 | |
Gao-3 (12th grade) | 17–18 |
Compulsory education law
The Law on Nine-Year Compulsory Education (中华人民共和国义务教育法), which took effect on 1 July 1986, established requirements and deadlines for attaining universal education tailored to local conditions and guaranteed school-age children the right to receive at least nine years of education (six-year primary education and three years secondary education). People's congresses at various local levels were, within certain guidelines and according to local conditions, to decide the steps, methods, and deadlines for implementing nine-year compulsory education in accordance with the guidelines formulated by the central authorities. The program sought to bring rural areas, which had four to six years of compulsory schooling, into line with their urban counterparts. Education departments were exhorted to train millions of skilled workers for all trades and professions and to offer guidelines, curricula, and methods to comply with the reform program and modernization needs.
The compulsory education law divided China into three categories: cities and economically developed areas in coastal provinces and a small number of developed areas in the hinterland; towns and villages with medium development; and economically backward areas.
By November 1985, the first category – the larger cities and approximately 20 percent of the counties (mainly in the more developed coastal and southeastern areas of China) – had achieved universal 9-year education. By 1990, cities, economically developed areas in coastal provincial-level units, a small number of developed interior areas (approximately 25 percent of China's population), and areas where junior high schools were already popularized were targeted to have universal junior-high-school education.
Education planners envisioned that by the mid-1990s, all workers and staff in coastal areas, inland cities, and moderately developed areas (with a combined population of 300 million to 400 million people) would have either compulsory 9-year or vocational education and that 5 percent of the people in these areas would have a college education, building a solid intellectual foundation for China. Furthermore, the planners expected that secondary education and university entrants would have increased by the year 2000.
The second category targeted under the 9-year compulsory education law consisted of towns and villages with medium-level development (around 50 percent of China's population), where
The third category, economically backward (rural) areas (around 25 percent of China's population), were to popularize basic education without a timetable and at various levels according to local economic development, though the state would try to support educational development. The state also would assist education in minority nationality areas. In the past, rural areas, which lacked a standardized and universal primary education system, had produced generations of illiterates; only 60 percent of their primary school graduates had met established standards.
As a further example of the government's commitment to nine-year compulsory education, in January 1986 the State Council drafted a
Tuition-free primary education is, despite compulsory education laws, still a target rather than a realized goal throughout China. As many families have difficulty paying school fees, some children are forced to leave school earlier than the nine-year goal.
The 9-year System is called "Nine Years – One Policy", or "九年一贯制" in Chinese. It usually refers to the educational integration of the elementary school and the middle school. After graduating from elementary school, graduates can directly enter into the junior high school. The grades in schools that implement the 9-year System are usually called Grade 1, Grade 2, and so on through Grade 9.
Main features of the 9-year System:
- Continuity. Students finish education from the elementary school to the middle school.
- The principle of proximity. Students enter into the nearby school instead of middle school entrance examination.
- Unity. Schools that carry out the 9-year System practice unified management in school administration, teaching and education.
In 2001, the Chinese government initiated the "Two exemptions and one subsidy plan". Students from poor families receiving compulsory education in rural areas are exempted from miscellaneous fees and book fees, and boarding students are gradually subsidized for living expenses. In 2007, all rural students receiving compulsory education from poor families enjoyed the policy of two exemptions and one subsidy, totaling about 50 million students. Starting in 2017, two exemptions and one subsidy under the urban-rural unified system will be implemented.[50][51][52][53]
Basic education
China's basic education involves pre-school, nine-year
China has over 200 million elementary and high school students, who, together with pre-school children, account for one sixth of the total population. For this reason, the Central Government has prioritized basic education as a key field of infrastructure construction and educational development.
In recent years, senior high school education has developed steadily. In 2004 enrollment was 8.215 million, 2.3 times that of 1988. Gross national enrollment in senior high schools has reached 43.8 percent, still lower than that of other developed countries.
The government has created a special fund to improve conditions in China's elementary and high schools, for new construction, expansion, and the re-building of run-down structures. Per-capita educational expenditure for elementary and high school students has grown greatly, teaching and research equipment, books, and documents being updated and renewed every year.
Government's aim for the development of China's basic education system is to approach or attain the level of moderately
Graduates of China's primary and secondary schools test highly in both basic skills and critical thinking skills;[54] however, due to poor health, rural students often drop out or lack in achievement.[55]
Key schools
"Key schools" is a term for institutions with a record of academic achievements which were given priority in the assignment of teachers, equipment, and funds. Many of these key schools were shut down during the Cultural Revolution, reappeared in the late 1970s and, in the early 1980s, and became an integral part of the effort to revive the lapsed education system. Because educational resources were scarce, key schools also were allowed to recruit the best students for special training to compete for admission to top schools at the next level. Key schools constituted only a small percentage of all regular senior high schools and funneled the best students into the best secondary schools, largely on the basis of entrance scores. In 1980 the greatest resources were allocated to the key schools that would produce the greatest number of college entrants.
In early 1987, efforts had begun to develop the key school from a
Training schools
Training schools, also called training centers, are a type of private education offered by companies that teach students in China who are typically from 3–12 years old. These schools exist to improve student performance in academic subjects such as English, math, and Chinese. Training schools can range from a one-room operation with only one teacher to very large corporations with hundreds of thousands of students.
Primary education
Primary schools
The institution of primary education in a country as vast as China has been an impressive accomplishment. In contrast to the 20 percent enrollment rate before 1949, in 1985 about 96 percent of primary school age children were enrolled in approximately 832,300 primary schools. This enrollment figure compared favorably with the recorded figures of the late 1960s and early 1970s when enrollment standards were more egalitarian. In 1985, the World Bank estimated that enrollments in primary schools would decrease from 136 million in 1983 to 95 million in the late 1990s and that the decreased enrollment would reduce the number of teachers needed. Yet qualified teachers would continue to be in demand.
Under the Law on Nine-Year Compulsory Education, primary schools were to be tuition-free and reasonably located for the convenience of children attending them; students would attend primary schools in their neighborhoods or villages. Parents paid a small fee per term for books and other expenses such as transportation, food and heating. Previously, fees were not considered a deterrent to attendance. Under the education reform, students from poor families received stipends, and state enterprises, institutions, and other sectors of society were encouraged to establish their own schools. A major concern was that scarce resources be conserved without causing enrollment to fall and without the weakening of the better schools. In particular, local governments were told not to pursue middle-school education blindly while primary school education was still developing, or to wrest money, teaching staff, and materials from primary schools.
Children usually entered primary school at seven years of age for six days a week, which after regulatory changes in 1995 and 1997 were changed to five and a half and five days, respectively. The two-semester school year consisted of 9.5 months, and began on 1 September and 1 March, with a summer vacation in July and August and a winter vacation in January and February. Urban primary schools typically divided the school week into twenty-four to twenty-seven classes of forty-five minutes each, but in the rural areas, the norm was half-day schooling, more flexible schedules, and itinerant teachers. Most primary schools had a five-year course, except in such cities as Beijing and Shanghai, and later other major cities, which had reintroduced six-year primary schools and accepted children at six and one-half years rather than seven.
The primary-school curriculum consisted of
The Ministry of Education required that all primary schools offer courses on morality and ethics. Beginning in the fourth grade, students usually had to perform productive labor two weeks per semester to relate classwork with production experience in workshops or on farms and relate it to academic study. Most schools had after-hour activities at least one day per week to involve students in recreation and community service. Between First and Third Grades, Chinese students are encouraged to join the Red Pioneers to prepare them for eventual potential membership in the Communist Party.[45]
By 1980 the percentage of students enrolled in primary schools were high, but the schools reported high dropout rates and regional enrollment gaps (most enrollees were concentrated in the cities). Only one in four counties had universal primary education. On average, 10 percent of the students dropped out between each grade. During the 1979–83 period, the government acknowledged the "9-6-3" rule, that is, that nine of ten children began primary school, six completed it, and three graduated with good performance. This meant that only about 60 percent of primary students actually completed their five-year program of study and graduated, and only about 30 percent were regarded as having primary-level competence. Statistics in the mid-1980s showed that more rural girls than boys dropped out of school.
Within the framework of the Law on Nine-Year Compulsory Education and the general trend toward vocational and technical skills, attempts were made to accommodate and correct the gap between urban and rural education. Urban and key schools almost invariably operated on a six-day full-time schedule to prepare students for further education and high-level jobs. Rural schools generally operated on a flexible schedule geared to the needs of the agricultural seasons and sought to prepare students for adult life and manual labor in lower-skilled jobs. They also offered a more limited curriculum, often only Chinese, mathematics, and morals. To promote attendance and allow the class schedule and academic year to be completed, agricultural seasons were taken into account. School holidays were moved, school days shortened, and full-time, half-time, and spare-time classes offered in the slack agricultural seasons. Sometimes itinerant teachers were hired for mountain villages and served one village in the morning, another village in the afternoon.
Rural parents were generally aware that their children had limited opportunities to further their education. Some parents saw little use in having their children attend even primary school, especially after the establishment of the agricultural
Preschool education
Special education
The 1985 National Conference on Education also recognized the importance of
Today, China has 1,540 schools for special education, with 375,000 students; more than 1,000 vocational training institutes for disabled people, nearly 3,000 standard vocational training and education institutes that also admit disabled people; more than 1,700 training organizations for rehabilitating hearing-impaired children, with over 100,000 trained and in-training children. In 2004, 4,112 disabled students entered ordinary schools of higher learning. Of disabled children receiving special education, 63.6 percent of total recruitment numbers and 66.2 percent of enrollment were in ordinary schools or special classes thereof.
Secondary education
History
Secondary education in China has a complicated history. In the early 1960s, education planners followed a policy called "walking on two legs", which established both regular academic schools and separate technical schools for vocational training. The rapid expansion of secondary education during the Cultural Revolution created serious problems; because resources were spread too thinly, educational quality declined. Further, this expansion was limited to regular secondary schools; technical schools were closed during the Cultural Revolution because they were viewed as an attempt to provide inferior education to children of worker and peasant families.
In the late 1970s, government and party representatives criticized what they termed the "unitary" approach of the 1960s, arguing that it ignored the need for two kinds of graduates: those with an academic education (college preparatory) and those with specialized technical education (vocational). Beginning in 1976 with the renewed emphasis on technical training, technical schools reopened, and their enrollments increased.
In the drive to spread vocational and technical education, regular secondary-school enrollments fell. By 1986 universal secondary education was part of the nine-year compulsory education law that made primary education (six years) and junior-high-school education (three years) mandatory. The desire to consolidate existing schools and to improve the quality of key middle schools was, however, under the education reform, more important than expanding enrollment.
Junior secondary
Junior secondary education is more commonly known as middle school or junior high school education, it consists of the last three years of compulsory education. Students who live in rural areas are often boarded into townships to receive their education.[56] Students take a course generally referred to as "Ideological and Political Studies" which emphasizes communist values and communist institutions.[45]: 60
Subject | Grade 7 | Grade 8 | Grade 9 |
---|---|---|---|
Chinese | |||
Mathematics | |||
English | |||
Physics | |||
Chemistry | |||
Politics | |||
History | (Chinese history) | (Chinese history) | (World History) |
Geography | |||
Biology | |||
Information Technology | |||
Physical Education |
Senior secondary
Senior secondary education often refers to three years of
Generally, high school years usually have two
In China, a senior high school graduate will be considered as an educated person, although the majority of graduates will go on to universities or vocational colleges. Given that the competition for limited university places is extremely intense, most high schools are evaluated by their academic performance in Gaokao by parents and students.
Admissions and Zhongkao
Zhongkao (中考), the
Admission for senior high schools, especially selective high schools, is somewhat similar to the one for universities in China. Students will go through an application system where they may choose the high schools at which they wish to study in an order to their preference before the high schools set out their entrance requirements. Once this is completed and the high schools will announce their requirements based on this information and the places they will offer in that year. For instance, if the school offers 800 places in that year, the results offered by the 800th intake student will be the standard requirements. So effectively, this ensures the school selects the top candidates in all the students who have applied to said school in that academic year. The severe competition only occurs in the very top high schools, normally, most students will have sufficient results for them to continue their secondary education if they wish to.
There are other official rules of admission in certain top high schools. If a prestigious senior high school wants to admit 800 students a year, the admissions office ranks students' scores from highest to lowest and then selects their first 700 students. The other 100 positions are provided to the students who do not meet the required standard, but still want to study at that school. These prospects need to pay extra school fees. A student cannot perform badly in Zhongkao, if their scores are close to the required standard, they could still study in that top school if they can afford the expenses. Those who study in that high school must place a maximum of two points below the standard requirement. Usually, 0.5 points is a standard. For instance, if a student is two points below the standard requirement, they pay four times as much as the student who gets 0.5 points below the standard requirement. The admissions of the 100 students who are required to pay the school fees usually do not get the same admission letters as normal students receive, but they can still study and live with normal students in the same high school, with the same teacher.
Vocational and technical schools
The "Law on Vocational Education" was issued in 1996. Vocational education embraces higher vocational schools, secondary skill schools, vestibule schools, vocational high schools, job-finding centers, and other adult skills and social training institutes. To enable vocational education to better accommodate the demands of economic re-structuring and urbanization, in recent years the government has remodeled vocational education, oriented towards obtaining employment and focusing on two major vocational education projects to meet society's ever more acute demand for high quality, skilled workers. These are cultivating skilled workers urgently needed in modern manufacturing and service industries, and training rural laborers moving to urban areas. To accelerate vocational education in western areas, the Central Government has used government bonds to build 186 vocational education centers in impoverished western area counties.
Both regular and vocational secondary schools sought to serve modernization needs. A number of technical and "skilled-worker" training schools reopened after the Cultural Revolution, and an effort was made to provide exposure to vocational subjects in general secondary schools (by offering courses in the industry, services, business, and agriculture). By 1985 there were almost 3 million vocational and technical students.
Under the educational reform tenets,
Although enrollment in technical schools of various kinds had not yet increased enough to compensate for decreasing enrollments in regular senior high schools, the proportion of vocational and technical students to total senior-high-school students increased from about 5 percent in 1978 to almost 36 percent in 1985, although development was uneven. Further, to encourage greater numbers of junior-high-school graduates to enter technical schools, vocational and technical school graduates were given priority in job assignments, while other job seekers had to take technical tests.
In 1987 there were four kinds of secondary vocational and technical schools:
- Technical schools, which offered a four-year, post-junior high course and two- to three-year post-senior high training in such fields as fine arts, and forestry;
- Workers' training schools, which accepted students whose senior-high-school education consisted of two years of training in such trades as carpentry and welding;
- Vocational technical schools, which accepted either junior-or senior-high-school students for one- to three-year courses in tailoring, photography, and other services; and
- Agricultural secondary schools, which offered basic subjects and agricultural science.
These technical schools had several hundred different programs. Their narrow specializations had advantages in that they offered in-depth training, reducing the need for on-the-job training and thereby lowering learning time and costs. Moreover, students were more motivated to study if there were links between training and future jobs. Much of the training could be done at existing enterprises, where staff and equipment was available at little additional cost.
There were some disadvantages to this system. Under the Four Modernizations, technically trained generalists were needed more than highly specialized technicians. Also, highly specialized equipment and staff were underused, and there was an overall shortage of specialized facilities to conduct training. In addition, large expenses were incurred in providing the necessary facilities and staff, and the trend in some government technical agencies was toward more general technical and vocational education.
Further, the dropout rate continued to have a negative effect on the labor pool as upper-secondary-school technical students dropped out and as the percentage of lower-secondary-school graduates entering the labor market without job training increased.
Although there were 668,000 new polytechnic school enrollments in 1985, the Seventh Five-Year Plan called for annual increases of 2 million mid-level skilled workers and 400,000 senior technicians, indicating that enrollment levels were still far from sufficient. To improve the situation, in July 1986 officials from the State Education Commission, State Planning Commission, and Ministry of Labor and Personnel convened a national conference on developing China's technical and vocational education. It was decided that technical and vocational education in rural areas should accommodate local conditions and be conducted on a short-term basis. Where conditions permitted, the emphasis would be placed on organizing technical schools and short-term training classes. To alleviate the shortage of teachers, vocational and technical teachers' colleges were to be reformed and other colleges and universities were to be mobilized for assistance. The State Council decided to improve training for workers who had passed technical examinations (as opposed to unskilled workers) was intended to reinforce the development of vocational and technical schools.
Expanding and improving secondary vocational education has long been an objective of China's educational reformers, for vocational schools are seen as those which are best placed to address (by providing trained workers) the rising needs of the nation's expanding economy, especially its manufacturing and industrial sectors. Without an educated and trained workforce, China cannot have economic, hence social and national, development. Yet, given a finite, and often quite limited, a pot of money for secondary schools, and allocation competition/conflict necessarily exists between its two sub-sectors: general education and vocational/technical education.
Regardless, an over-enrollment in the latter has been the overall result of the mid-1980s reforms. Yet firms that must seek workers from this graduate pool have remained unimpressed with the quality of recruits and have had to rely on their own job-training programs that provide re-education for their newly hired workers. The public, also, has not been very enthusiastic over vocational secondary education which, unlike general education, does not lead to the possibility of higher education. The public's perception is that these schools provide little more than a dead end for their children. Also, vocational institutions are more expensive to run than their counterparts in general education, and they have not had sufficient money to modernize their facilities, as China's modernizing national economy demands. By mid-decade of the 21st Century, therefore, academics and policy-makers alike began to question the policy that pours funds into vocational schools that do not do their intended function.
Private education
In 2021, 56,000,000 students attended 190,000 privately operated schools, with 12,000 of them having primary and/or junior high school levels. These students represent about 20% of all students in China. By 2021, the Chinese central government was nationalizing some for-profit private schools.[57]
Private schools have pioneered cooperation with foreign partners in the running of schools and many foreign universities have entered China this way, which has both improved the quality of China's education resources and opened new channels for students' further studies.[58]
In January 2017, State Council of China stated that the China Communist party's leadership over private schools should be strengthened, CCP's organizations should be established in private schools, and the party organizations of private schools should play a political core role and firmly control the private schools' school orientation: Training socialist builders and successors.[59]
Supplemental classes and tutoring
A 2019 survey conducted by Tencent found that 88.7% of students in fourth through first tier cities took supplemental classes outside of school and that the average was 2.1 supplemental classes per student.[60]: 66
In 2021, the government shutdown private tutoring for schoolchildren based on the rationale that rising educational costs were antithetical to the goals of common prosperity.[60]: 67 Shutting down private tutoring was intended to narrow the education gap between rich and poor.[61]: 5 Rules issued in July 2021 prohibits new registration of private tuition tutoring centers and required existing centers to re-organize as non-profits.[48]: 156 Tuition centers are prohibited from being listed on the stock market or receiving "excessive capital."[48]: 156 They are no longer permitted to offer tutoring on the weekends or during public holidays.[48]: 156
Nature schools (ziran xuexigo) are offered by companies and organizations outside of the formal school system.[22]: 138 These programs seek to supplement environmental education with hands-on environmental learning not typically available through schools.[22]: 138–139
International education
As of January 2021, SICAS –Study In China Admission System[62] listed China as having 300 international schools.[63] ISC defines an 'international school' in the following terms: "ISC includes an international school if the school delivers a curriculum to any combination of pre-school, primary or secondary students, wholly or partly in English outside an English-speaking country, or if a school in a country where English is one of the official languages offers an English-medium curriculum other than the country's national curriculum and is international in its orientation."[64] This definition is used by publications including The Economist.[65] There were 177,400 students enrolled in international schools in 2014.[66]
2013 Nicholas Brummitt, managing director of ISC, reported that there were 338 international schools in Mainland China as of 2013, with 184,073 students. Slightly more than half of the international schools are in the major expatriate areas of China: Beijing, Shanghai, and Guangdong Province, while the remainder is in other areas.[24] Beijing, Shanghai, and Guangzhou have the most international schools while significant numbers also exist in Shenzhen and Chengdu.[67]
Many international schools in Beijing and Shanghai, in accordance with Chinese law, are only permitted to enroll students who have citizenship in areas other than Mainland China.[24] This is because Mainland Chinese students are required to have a certain curriculum, and schools that do not include this curriculum are not permitted to enroll Mainlanders.[67] Mainlander children who hold foreign passports are permitted to attend these schools.[68] As of 2014, 19 international schools in Beijing are restricted to non-Mainlanders. There are also schools using international curricula that accept both Mainlander and non-Mainlander students.[67]
By 2004, increased international business operations resulted in an increase of foreign children. Many of the original post-1949 international schools used International Baccalaureate and North American curricula. By 2004 many international schools in Beijing and Shanghai using the British curricula had opened.[69] The number of international schools in China grew from 22 schools in 2001 to 338 schools in 2013; over the same period, enrollment in international schools rose 25 times to 184,073 students.[24] By the 2010s, many Mainland Chinese parents began sending their children to international schools that accept Mainland students to increase their children's chances of going overseas.[24][66]
There is an increasing number of international universities representation in China in recent years,
Higher education
This section may contain an excessive amount of intricate detail that may interest only a particular audience. |
Higher education in China is the largest in the world.[78] By the end of 2021, there were over 3,000 colleges and universities, with over 44.3 million students enrolled in mainland China and 240 million Chinese citizens having received high education.[79][80] The gross rate of enrollment in schools of higher learning reached 58.42 percent in 2020.[81]
In 2015, a
Background
The quality of
Efforts made in 1975 to improve educational quality were unsuccessful. By 1980, it appeared doubtful that the politically oriented admission criteria had accomplished even the purpose of increasing enrollment of workers and peasant children. Successful candidates for university entrance were usually children of cadres and officials who used personal connections that allowed them to "enter through the back door." Students from officials' families would accept the requisite minimum two-year work assignment in the countryside, often in a suburban location that allowed them to remain close to their families. Village cadres, anxious to please the parents/officials, gladly recommended these youths for university placement after the labor requirement had been met. The child of an official family was then on his or her way to a university without having the academic ability, a record of political activism, or a distinguished work record.
After the death of
Modernization goals in the 1980s
The commitment to the
.Reformers realized that the higher education system was far from meeting modernization goals and that additional changes were needed. The Provisional Regulations Concerning the Management of Institutions of Higher Learning, promulgated by the State Council in 1986, initiated vast changes in administration and adjusted educational opportunity, direction, and content. With the increased independence accorded under the education reform, universities and colleges were able to choose their own teaching plans and curricula; to accept projects from or cooperate with other socialist establishments for scientific research and technical development in setting up "combines" involving teaching, scientific research, and production; to suggest appointments and removals of vice presidents and other staff members; to take charge of the distribution of capital construction investment and funds allocated by the state, and to be responsible for the development of international exchanges by using their own funds.
The changes also allowed the universities to accept financial aid from work units and decide how this money was to be used without asking for more money from departments in charge of education. Further, higher education institutions and work units could sign contracts for the training of students.
Higher education institutions also were assigned a greater role in running inter-regional and inter-departmental schools. Within their state-approved
There also was a renewed interest in television, radio, and correspondence classes (see
Entrance examinations and admission criteria
National examinations to select students for higher education (and positions of leadership) were an important part of
Each provincial-level unit was assigned a quota of students to be admitted to key universities, the second quota of students for regular universities within that administrative division, and a third quota of students from other provinces, autonomous regions, and special municipalities who would be admitted to institutions operated at the provincial level. Provincial-level administrative units selected students with outstanding records to take the examinations. Additionally, preselection examinations were organized by the provinces, autonomous regions, and special municipalities for potential students (from three to five times the number of places allotted). These candidates were actively encouraged to take the examination to ensure that a sufficient number of good applicants would be available.
In December 1977, when uniform national examinations were reinstated, 5.7 million students took the examinations, although university placement was available for only the 273,000 applicants with the highest scores. The admission rate of 4.8% was the lowest in the history of Chinese higher education, the admitted students are known as the
Other
In addition to the written examination, university applicants had to pass a physical examination and a political screening. Less than 2 percent of the students who passed the written test were eliminated for reasons of poor health. The number disqualified for political reasons was known, but publicly the party maintained that the number was very small and that it sought to ensure that only the most able students actually entered colleges and universities.
By 1985 the number of institutions of higher learning had again increased – to slightly more than 1,000. The State Education Commission and the
In 1985 state quotas for university places were set, allowing both for students sponsored by institutions and for those paying their own expenses. This policy was a change from the previous system in which all students were enrolled according to guidelines established in Beijing. All students except those at military school or police academy, those who had financial difficulties, and those who were to work under adverse conditions after graduation had to pay for their own tuition, accommodations, and miscellaneous
Changes in enrollment and assignment policies
The children enrollment and graduate assignment system also were changed to reflect more closely the personnel needs of
Accompanying the changes in enrollment practices were reforms (adopted 1986) in the faculty appointment system, which ended the "iron rice bowl" employment system and permitted colleges and universities to decide which academic departments, which academic majors, and how many teachers they needed. Teachers in institutions of higher learning were hired on a basis, usually for two to four years at a time. The teaching positions available on basis were teaching assistant, lecturer, associate professor, and professor. The system was tested in eight major universities in Beijing and Shanghai before it was instituted nationwide at the end of 1985. University presidents headed groups in charge of appointing professors, lecturers, and teaching assistants according to their academic levels and teaching abilities, and a more rational wage system, geared to different job levels, was inaugurated. Universities and colleges with surplus professors and researchers were advised to grant them appropriate academic titles and encourage them to work for their current pay in schools of higher learning where they were needed. The new system was to be extended to schools of all kinds and other education departments within two years.
Under the 1985 reforms, all graduates were assigned jobs by the state; a central government placement agency told the schools where to send graduates. By 1985
.Scholarship and loan system
In July 1986 the State Council announced that the
Study abroad
In addition to loans, another means of raising educational quality, particularly in
Chinese students sent to the United States generally were not typical undergraduates or graduate students but were mid-career scientists, often thirty-five to forty-five years of age, seeking advanced training in their areas of specialization. Often they were individuals of exceptional ability who occupied responsible positions in Chinese universities and research institutions. Fewer than 15 percent of the earliest arrivals were degree candidates. Nearly all the visiting scholars were in scientific fields.
Multiple opinion studies have shown that the longer Chinese students study abroad, the better their view of China becomes.[83]: 59 According to the Ministry of Education approximately 86% of students who completed their studies abroad between 2000 and 2019 returned to China.[60]: 284
Educational investment
Many of the problems that had hindered higher educational development in the past continued in 1987. Funding remained a major problem because
The prestige associated with higher education caused a demand for it. But many qualified youths were unable to attend colleges and universities because China could not finance enough university places for them. To help meet the demand and to educate a highly trained, specialized workforce, China established alternate forms of higher education – such as spare-time, part-time, and radio and television universities.
China could not afford a heavy investment, either ideologically or financially, in the education of a few students. Since 1978 China's leaders have modified the policy of concentrating education resources at the university level, which, although designed to facilitate modernization, conflicted directly with the party's principles. The policies that produced an educated elite also siphoned off resources that might have been used to accomplish the compulsory nine-year education more speedily and to equalize educational opportunities in the city and the countryside. The policy of key schools has been modified over the years. Nevertheless, China's leaders believe an educated elite is necessary to reach modernization goals. Corruption has been increasingly problematic for rural schools. Because the educational funding is distributed from the top down, each layer of bureaucracy has tended to siphon off more than its share of funding, leaving too little for the bottom rural level.
Families have had to cover for government indifference by making personal investments in their children's education. Chinese economy may not be able to effectively absorb the resulting influx of college graduates, who may need to settle for lower paying jobs, if they can find those.[84]
Reform in the 21st century
In 1998 the Chinese government proposed to expand the university enrollment of professional and specialized graduates and to develop world-class universities.
In the spring of 2007, China planned to conduct a national evaluation of its universities. The results of this evaluation are used to support the next major planned policy initiative. The last substantial national evaluation of universities, which was undertaken in 1994, resulted in the 'massification' of higher education as well as a renewed emphasis on elite institutions.[86] Academics praised the fin du siècle reforms for budging China's higher education from a unified, centralized, closed and static system into one characterized by more diversification, decentralization, openness, and dynamism, stimulating the involvement of local governments and other non-state sectors. At the same time, they note that this decentralization and marketization has led to further inequality in educational opportunity.[87]
Chinese policies on College Entrance Examination have been influenced by the recruitment systems of western countries and the traditional culture of imperial examinations. Since Fudan University and Shanghai Jiao Tong University started independent enrollment before College Entrance Examination in 2007, some of the top Chinese colleges began to follow them using a new method to choose students besides a unified examination system. In accordance with university regulations, those colleges appoint their own staff and are responsible for selecting students. Students can get admitted by taking a specific exam or interview before the College Entrance Examination. In this way, students have more chances to get admitted by the top colleges. In 2010, there were several critical reforms in the education field. On 31 January, the education ministry in Guangdong province began to implement parallel voluntary admission in the college entrance recruiting system, which is an efficient way to decrease the risk of getting into a college for the majority of students. On 20 November, the education ministry of China canceled the additional Olympics points in the College Entrance Exam policy. It is fairer for the high school students, and efficiently reduces the heavy academic burdens for students. As the economic development of China, the private school system has been gradually built up. Many private preschools began to use bilingual teaching. Furthermore, some public colleges and universities cooperated with investors to run secondary college by using public running and being sponsored by private enterprises, which promotes the development of education. On the other hand, the Technical and Vocational Education in China has developed rapidly, and become the focus of the whole society.[citation needed]
Nowadays, as the educational level of Chinese has increased, getting into college is no longer a remarkable achievement among the Chinese students. Instead, having a degree of an ordinary Chinese university already cannot satisfy the increasingly competitive society. Chinese parents and students have begun to place a high value on overseas education, especially at top American and European institutions such as
With more students going abroad for university, increasing numbers of affluent families are "opting out" of the conventional public school system, which is heavily oriented towards preparing for the Chinese college admissions test. These families, who can afford tuition at a foreign university and may prefer a more "western" education for their children, are sending their children to private schools, special programs within Chinese public schools, or schools abroad.[91] Some of the prestige of American higher education is the result of weaknesses in the PRC's education system, which stifles creativity in favor of rote memorization.[92]
As a result of the growing mismatch between university degrees and job opportunities in China, university students are also increasingly undertaking extracurricular educational training during their time in university. These include university clubs, volunteering activities, and internships.[93] Furthermore, the Chinese state has promoted entrepreneurship among university students by running business training, setting up "business incubators" on campuses, and offering special benefits for student entrepreneurs. As a result of this development, university life in China has become associated with various aspects of "self-development" in addition to formal classroom learning.[94]
Beginning in 2017, Chinese universities and regional governments have begun establishing centers for the study of Xi Jinping's thoughts on ecological civilization.[95]: 89 At least 18 such centers had been established as of 2021.[95]: 89
Overseas students
The number of
According to reports, South Korea, Japan, the United States, Vietnam, and Thailand were the five biggest source countries, and the number of students from European source countries is increasing.[100] Currently the Chinese government offers over 10,000 scholarships to foreign students, though this is set to rise by approximately 3,000 within the next year.
International students are increasingly studying in China.[101]
Rankings and reputation
Currently, China has around 3,012
As of 2023, China tops the list for the first time for the Academic Ranking of World Universities (ARWU)[104] and the U.S. News & World Report Best Global Universities Ranking 2022–2023,[105] two of the fourth most observed global university rankings apart from the QS and THE.[109]
China has dominated the
According to THE China Subject Ratings 2020 conducted by the Time Higher Education World University Rankings, Chinese universities are on a par with their counterparts in the US, the UK, and Germany across 89 subjects ahead of others like France, South Korea, and Russia. The country scores above the global average of B score, with 46 percent of its universities' grades were A+, A, or A−, only slightly behind the US (49 percent).[113] The QS ranking by subjects 2021indicated that universities in China now have a record number in the top 50 universities in the world across all 51 subjects in five broad discipline areas: "Arts and Humanities", "Natural Sciences", "Social Sciences and Management", "Engineering & Technology", and "Life Sciences and Medicines".[114]
This reflects the continual development of Chinese higher education and research quality of universities over time. Regardless of different rankings about universities in China, the Ministry of Education of China does not advocate or recognize any ranking conducted by a third party.
Leading universities in the Double First-Class Construction such as
Adult education
It has been suggested that this section be Adult education in China. (Discuss ) (September 2020) |
Because only 4 percent of the nation's secondary education graduates are admitted to universities, China has found it necessary to develop other ways of meeting the demand for education.
History of adult education
In 1949, the common program formulated by the first session of the Chinese people's political consultative conference (CPPCC) clearly confirmed that China needed to put emphasis on the education of the working class. It addressed the serious situation of illiteracy, which was then more than 80 percent of the population.[118] The period from 1949 to 1966 marked the beginning and development of adult education in new China.[119] From 1966 to 1976, adult education could not be carried out normally due to the impact of the ten-year "cultural revolution".[119] Since 1978, when China entered the new era of modernization, adult education has been rapidly restored and developed.[119]
Forms
Schools have been established by government departments, businesses, trade unions, academic societies, democratic parties, and other organizations. In 1984 about 70 percent of China's factories and enterprises supported their own part-time classes, which often were referred to as workers' colleges. In Beijing alone, more than ninety adult-education schools with night schools enrolled tens of thousands of students. More than 20,000 of these students graduated annually from evening universities, workers' colleges, television universities, and correspondence schools – more than twice the number graduating from regular colleges and universities. The government spent 200 yuan (¥) to ¥500 per adult education student and at least ¥1,000 per regular university student. In 1984 approximately 1.3 million students enrolled in television, correspondence, and evening universities, about a 30 percent increase over 1983.
Spare-time education for workers and peasants and
China's educational television system began in 1960 but was suspended during the Cultural Revolution in 1966. In 1979 the
Literacy and language reform
The continuing campaigns to eradicate illiteracy also were a part of
A second language reform required the simplification of ideographs because ideographs with fewer strokes are easier to learn. In 1964 the Committee for Reforming the Chinese Written Language released an official list of 2,238
The third area of change involved the proposal to use the pinyin romanization system more widely. Pinyin (first approved by the National People's Congress in 1958) was encouraged primarily to facilitate the spread of Putonghua in regions where other dialects and languages are spoken. By the mid-1980s, the use of pinyin was not as widespread as the use of Putonghua.
Literacy campaigns and the differences in funding actually increased the differences in literacy rates in the city and the countryside.[120] Retaining literacy was as much a problem as acquiring it, particularly among the rural population. Literacy rates declined between 1966 and 1976. The political disorder may have contributed to the decline, but the basic problem was that the many Chinese ideographs can be mastered only through rote learning and can be often forgotten because of disuse.[citation needed]
Types
With the development of the education system in China, the government gradually began to pay attention to adult education, instituting three types of adult education: Adult college entrance examinations, higher education self-taught examinations, and open education and network education (distance education).[118]
There is only one college entrance exam every year, typically in the middle of October.[118] Adult college entrance classes are usually held on weeknights or weekends.
Adult self-taught exams are open to all adults and does not require a certificate of formal schooling to participate. The only requirement is possession of a valid
Candidates can take the exam by studying various subjects on their own or enroll in courses which are organized by universities or junior colleges.Compared with traditional academic education, open education is a new teaching model that combines traditional face-to-face teaching, textbook autonomous learning, and online real-time courses and online classes.[118]
Network education is taught through a network course. The study style is convenient, suits adults with busy jobs and do not have a fixed time to attend a class. Enrollment time is relatively loose, divided into spring and autumn admission.[118] The examination time is also quite open, every month having an entrance examination.
Online education
It has been suggested that this section be Online education in China. (Discuss ) (September 2020) |
The participation of big investors in
The Ministry of Education has approved 68 ordinary schools of higher learning and the Central Radio and TV University to pilot modern distance education. By the end of 2003, these schools had established 2,027 off-campus learning centers around China, offering 140 majors in ten disciplines, and had a total enrollment of 1.373 million.
The gradual spread of broadband technology has also helped online education. The
Information and communications technology (ICT)
In 2010, the Government of China released its medium and long term national ICT in education master plans, which stated explicitly that ICT would have a historic impact on the development of education and called for a strong emphasis on ICT in education. In order to realize the scientific and orderly development of ICT in education, China has developed a holistic and top-down approach. The Ten Year Development Plan for ICT in Education 2011–2020 was formalized in 2012. It states that by 2020, all adults will have access to quality education resources in an ICT-enabling environment, an ICT support service system for the learning society will take shape, and all regions and schools at all levels will have broadband internet access.[122]
In order to considerably enhance Internet coverage and transmission capacity, China has accelerated its drive to upgrade infrastructure, including the China Education and Research Network (CERNet) and China Education Broadband Satellite (CEBSat), which are the two main education networks.[122]
To enhance the impact of ICT in education and teaching, China has placed a strong focus on developing quality digital educational resources. In particular, China has launched the "one teacher, one quality lesson, and one class one quality teacher" initiative, which has led to the creation of quality digital teaching resources for 3.26 million teachers. In tandem, the Chinese Government has encouraged higher education institutions to develop MOOCs, and private companies to develop basic digital resources to supplement formal educational materials.[122]
To enhance the modernization of education governance, China has promoted ICT in education administration through the establishment of a national data center and the implementation of the national service system for education decision-making. China has also set up a national data center supporting the administration through a unique online identity number for each student, each teacher, and each school.[122]
In an effort to promote the widespread application of ICT in teaching, China has carried out full-scale capacity training for teachers. China has launched a capacity improvement project targeting primary and secondary school teachers' capacity to use ICT, helping them to integrate ICT into their teaching. ICT training for education administrators has also been stepped up, so as to enhance their ICT leadership capability.[122]
Teachers
In 1985, the government designated 10 September as
The government has started the Nationwide Program of Network for Education of Teachers to improve the quality of teaching.[when?] It aims to modernize teachers' education through educational information, providing support and services for lifelong learning through the teachers' education network, TV satellite network, and the Internet and to greatly improve the teaching quality of elementary and high school faculty through large-scale, high-quality and high-efficiency training and continuous education.
As required by state law, local governments are implementing teacher qualification systems and promoting in-service training for large numbers of school principals, so as to further improve school management standards. Currently, in schools of higher learning, professors and assistant professors account for 9.5 percent and 30 percent respectively. Young and middle-aged teachers predominate; teachers under age 45 account for 79 percent of total faculty, and under age 35 for 46 percent. Teachers in higher education constitute a vital contingent in
Among the most pressing problems facing education reformers was the scarcity of qualified
To cope with the shortage of qualified teachers, the State Education Commission decreed in 1985 that senior-middle-school teachers should be graduates with two years' training in professional institutes and that primary-school teachers should be graduates of secondary schools. To improve teacher quality, the commission established full-time and part-time (the latter preferred because it was less costly) in-service training programs. Primary-school and preschool in-service teacher training programs devoted 84 percent of the time to subject teaching, 6 percent to
By 1985 there were more than 1,000 teacher training schools – an indispensable tool in the effort to solve the acute shortage of qualified teachers. These schools, however, were unable to supply the number of teachers needed to attain
Because urban teachers continued to earn more than their rural counterparts and because academic standards in the countryside had dropped, it remained difficult to recruit teachers for rural areas. Teachers in rural areas also had production responsibilities for their plots of land, which took time from their teaching. Rural primary teachers needed to supplement their pay by farming because most were paid by the relatively poor local communities rather than by the state.[citation needed]
School uniforms
It has been suggested that this section be School uniforms in China. (Discuss ) (September 2020) |
Many schools in China require the use of a school uniform until college.[123] Students have uniforms for both sportswear and their daily uniform, both of which will change depending on the season.[123][124] Uniforms can also differ in design depending on the school, making it easy for people to identify which school a student attends.[125] Proponents of school uniforms argue that the uniforms are a unique form of culture, remove the pressure of students comparing clothing, and allow the faculty and others to identify students and their respective schools.[125] In an article for China Daily, Yuan Can stated that while student uniforms were previously regarded as a sign of progress, in current society the uniform's style is seen instead as a sign of identity and belonging.[126]
Issues
The intensity of competition in education is a source of national angst.[60]: 67 Although cities like Shanghai regularly perform highly in international assessments, Chinese education has both native and international detractors; common areas of criticism include its intense rigor; its emphasis on memorization and standardized testing,[127] which can discourage innovation and independent thinking;[128] and the gap in quality of education between regions and genders.
Stress on memorization and rigour
In 2014, Jonathan Kaiman of The Guardian wrote that Chinese parents and educators "see their own system as corrupt, dehumanizing, pressurized and unfair"; he went on to discuss the country's college admission exam (called the gaokao), writing that "many parents consider the grueling nine-hour test a sorting mechanism that will determine the trajectory of their children's lives."[129]
Regional inequality
In 2014, Helen Gao of The New York Times called China's educational system "cutthroat" and wrote that its positive reputation among admirers is largely built on a myth:[130]
While China has phenomenally expanded basic education for its people, quadrupling its output of college graduates in the past decade, it has also created a system that discriminates against its less wealthy and well-connected citizens, thwarting social mobility at every step with bureaucratic and financial barriers. A huge gap in educational opportunities between students from rural areas and those from cities is one of the main culprits. Some 60 million students in rural schools are 'left-behind' children, cared for by their grandparents as their parents seek work in faraway cities. While many of their urban peers attend schools equipped with state-of-the-art facilities and well-trained teachers, rural students often huddle in decrepit school buildings and struggle to grasp advanced subjects such as English and chemistry amid a dearth of qualified instructors. "Rural students stand virtually no chance when competing academically with their urban counterparts," Jiang Nengjie, a friend and independent filmmaker who made a documentary on the left-behind children, told me.
In 2014, Lara Farrar argued in The Chronicle of Higher Education that the disabled are "shortchanged" in Chinese schools, with very little chance of acceptance into higher educational institutions.[131]
Reflecting the fact that most of China's population lives in the countryside, 95.2 percent of all elementary schools, 87.6 percent of junior high schools and 71.5 percent of senior high schools are in rural areas, with 160 million students at the compulsory education stage. The 1995–2000 "National Project of Compulsory Education in Impoverished Areas" involved the allocation of 3.9 billion special funds from the central finance and 10 billion yuan raised by local governments to improve schooling conditions in impoverished areas. In 2004, various special funds allocated by the central finance for compulsory education in rural areas reached 10 billion yuan, a 72.4 percent increase on the 2003 figure of 5.8 billion.
The
In a Ministry of Education program covering the next five years [timeframe?], the government will implement measures to realize its aims of nine-year compulsory education in China's western region and the basic elimination of young and middle-aged illiteracy and the popularization of high level, high quality nine-year compulsory education in the east and central rural areas. At the same time, the government is to promote the development of modern distance learning for rural elementary and high schools and further improve rural compulsory education management systems.[citation needed]
Gender inequality
A 2010 statement by UNESCO stated that in China it is "necessary to articulate a strategy to improve girls' and women's participation, retention and achievement in education at all levels," and that education should be "seen as an instrument for the empowerment of women."[134]
Academic censorship
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Academic publications and speeches in China are subjected to the censorship of Chinese authorities.[135]
Textbook examination, approval, and censorship
Education is a significant part of the Chinese political system and is tightly controlled by the central government. China's ruling party – the Chinese Communist Party (CCP) – tightly controls teaching materials throughout the country. All curricula and textbooks are examined and approved to prevent students from the influence of foreign ideologies.[136]
In December 2019, the Ministry of Education of China published a guideline that outlines the policies for textbook writing, examination, and censorship in primary and secondary education.[137] According to the guidelines, textbooks are administered at three levels:[137]
- The State Level: Textbooks for national curricula are written by the State Council, and the state also examines, approves, and censors the local-level textbooks.[137]
- The Local Level (provinces, cities, and counties): The party committees at local levels control the local-level textbook writing and examination and monitor the schools’ execution of the education policies.[137]
- The school level: The schools are supposed to develop unique school curricula while implementing the policies, and if schools need to publish any textbook, they need to send the textbook to the party committees for censorship.[137]
Under this hierarchical administrative system, the teaching materials must align with the directives of the Chinese Communist Party. The guidelines state that for subjects with content aligned with or reflected political ideologies, such as history and politics, the state will create standardized textbooks and curricula for use nationwide.[137] Additionally, textbooks published locally that contain those content must be examined and approved by the propaganda department of the local-level party committee, ensuring adherence to national values and principles as defined by the Chinese Communist Party.[137]
The party also exercises oversight over higher education, particularly within
There are voices in China that criticize the state's intervention in
Positive opinions also exist regarding textbook policies. Professor Duan Zhaobing from the College of Educational Science at Anhui Normal University suggests that textbooks for primary and secondary education “have the mission of cultivating new people of the times who will be responsible for the rejuvenation of the Chinese nation.”[139] According to Duan, the examination and approval system enables the CCP to guide this process effectively. Duan also suggests that textbooks for primary and secondary education be reformed to cater to students from various regions and backgrounds. The local governments are obligated to offer more affordable “black and white” versions of textbooks for students in disadvantaged areas, alleviating the financial strain on their families.[139]
Discrimination
Although all people are entitled to nine years of compulsory education in China, there are reports showing that minorities including people with
English education
China's first contact with the English language occurred between the Chinese and English traders, and the first missionary schools to teach English were established in Macau in the 1630s. The state emphasis of English education emerged after 1979 when the Cultural Revolution ended, China adopted the Open Door Policy, and the United States and China established strong diplomatic ties. An estimate of the number of English speakers in China is over 200 million and rising, with 50 million secondary school children now studying the language.[141]
In China, most school children are taught their first English lesson at the age of 10. Despite the early learning of English, there is widespread criticism of the teaching and learning of the language. Schools in China are evaluated and financed based on test results. This causes teaching to be geared towards the skills tested. Students focus on rote-memorization (written and oral repetition) as the main learning strategy. These methods, which fit very well with the Chinese way of learning, have been criticized as fundamentally flawed by Western educationalists and linguists.[142] Furthermore, newly learned words are seldom put into use. This arises because everyone in China communicates through Mandarin or a regional Chinese dialect, and English is perceived to be of little use in the country. This has been further reinforced through the national Band 4 examination where 80% of the test is the writing component, 20% is devoted to listening, and speaking is excluded entirely. According to a national survey, only half of the teachers consider that vocabulary should be learned through conversation or communication. A far smaller percentage support activities such as role-playing or vocabulary games.[142]
According to research completed by The Telegraph in 2017, less than 1 percent of people in China speak English conversationally.[143]
Education for migrant children
Following the large-scale movement of the Chinese rural population to the cities the children of these
Studies among left-behind children in China found that they had lower self-esteem and more mental health problems than children overall. Teachers of left-behind children often lack the resources, understanding, or opportunity to communicate to family or guardians the need for them to provide support and attention. Analysis for the 2019 Global Education Monitoring Report found that children with absent mothers had lower grades in mathematics, Chinese, and English. Children with one or both parents absent had more symptoms of depression than those with present parents. Analysis from rural Gansu province (2000 and 2015) found that children with absent fathers had 0.4 fewer years of education.[149]
See also
- Career and Life Planning Education
- China Open Resources for Education (CORE)
- Chinese university ranking
- Culture of China
- Digital divide in China
- Higher education in China
- History of science and technology in China
- Imperial examination
- International Research And Training Centre For Rural Education(INRULED)
- List of universities in China
- National College Entrance Examination
- OpenCourseWare in China
- Patriotic Education Campaign
- Private and public schools in China
- Scouting and Guiding in Mainland China
- Two Million Minutes(documentary film)
- Education in China by province
- Bohunt Chinese School
- Class of 1977 (China)
References
Citations
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Further reading
General Studies and Education Under Mao, 1949–1976
- Suzanne Pepper, Radicalism and Education Reform in 20th-Century China: The Search for an Ideal Development Model (Cambridge; New York: Cambridge University Press, 1996)
- John F. Cleverley, The Schooling of China : Tradition and Modernity in Chinese Education (North Sydney, NSW, Australia: Allen & Unwin; 2nd, 1991)
- Howard Gardner, To Open Minds: Chinese Clues to the Dilemma of Contemporary American Education (New York: Basic Books, 1989). The observations of a leading American educationist who visited China in the 1980s and ascribed the effectiveness of Chinese education to underlying cultural attitudes and political choices.
- Julia Kwong, Chinese Education in Transition: Prelude to the Cultural Revolution (Montreal: McGill-Queen's University Press, 1979)
- Shi Ming Hu, Eli Seifman, eds., Toward a New World Outlook: A Documentary History of Education in the People's Republic of China, 1949-1976 (New York: AMS Press, 1976)
- W. John Morgan, 'Maoist ideology and education', Chapter 2 in W. John Morgan, Qing Gu, and Fengliang Li (Eds.),Handbook of Education in China, Edward Elgar Publishing, Cheltenham, UK, and Northampton, MA, USA,2017, ISBN 978-1-78347-065-5, pp. 43–58,
- Peterson, Glen (1994). "Recent Trends in Literacy Studies and Their Application to China". The Journal of Educational Thought (JET) / Revue de la Pensée Éducative. 28 (2): 138–152. JSTOR 23767294. Reviews revisonist developments in the field and post 1949 literacy campaigns.
- Yellienk, Roie, "Chinese education: a tradition of obedience to the spirit of innovation", Makor Rishon, 17 April 2020, https://www.makorrishon.co.il/news/221211/.
Education after 1976
- Yang, Rui. (2020) "Internationalization of Higher Education, China." The International Encyclopedia of Higher Education Systems and Institutions (2020): 1901–1904. online
- Wang, W. (2021). "Medical education in China: progress in the past 70 years and a vision for the future." BMC Medical Education, 21(1), 1–6. online
- Guo, L., Huang, J., & Zhang, Y. (2019). "Education development in China: Education return, quality, and equity" Sustainability, 11(13), 3750. online
- Zhu, Y. (2019). "New national initiatives of modernizing education in China." ECNU Review of Education, 2(3), 353–362. online
- Eryong, X., & Xiuping, Z. (2018). "Education and anti-poverty: Policy theory and strategy of poverty alleviation through education in China" Educational philosophy and theory, 50(12), 1101–1112.
- M. Agelasto & B. Adamson. (1998). Higher Education in Post-Mao China. ISBN 962-209-450-3Hong Kong: University of Hong Kong Press, 490 pp.
- Emily Hannum and Albert Par, eds.,. Education and Reform in China. London ; New York: Routledge, Critical Asian Scholarship, 2007. xx, 282 pp. . Comprehensive collection of articles on finance and access under reform; schools, teachers, literacy, and educational quality under market reforms after the death of Mao in 1976.
- Jing Lin, Education in Post-Mao China (Westport, Conn.: Praeger, 1993)
- Xiufang Wang. Education in China since 1976. Jefferson, N.C.: McFarland & Co., 2003.
- Xiulan Zhang, ed.,. China's Education Development and Policy, 1978–2008. Leiden ; Boston: Brill, Social Scientific Studies in Reform Era China, 2011. xix, 480 p.p. Translations of articles by specialists in the PRC on policy making; early childhood education; basic education; special education; vocational education; ethnic minority education; private education.
- Ruth Hayhoe, China's Universities and the Open Door (Armonk, N.Y.: M.E. Sharpe, 1989)
- W. John Morgan and Fengliang Li, 'Education: From egalitarian ideology to public policy'. Chapter 14 in David S.G. Goodman (Ed.), Handbook of the Politics of China, Edward Elgar Publishing, Cheltenham, UK, and Northampton, MA, USA, 2015, ISBN 978-1-78254-436-4, pp. 217–237.
- W. John Morgan, Qing Gu, and Fengliang Li (Eds.),Handbook of Education in China, Edward Elgar Publishing, Cheltenham, UK, and Northampton, MA, USA,2017, xi and 558 pp. ISBN 978-1-78347-065-5.
- Jonathan Unger, Education under Mao: Class and Competition in Canton Schools, 1960–1980 (New York: Columbia University Press, 1982)
Topical studies
- Heidi A. Ross, China Learns English: Language Teaching and Social Change in the People's Republic (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1993)
- Geoff Dyer and Khozem Merchant. Graduate shortage 'may hinder Chinese economy.' 6 October 2005. Financial Times.
- China Luring Scholars to Make Universities Great, The New York Times, 28 October 2005
- M. Agelasto. 2001. University in Turmoil: The Political Economy of Shenzhen University Archived 19 August 2006 at the ISBN 962-86141-1-8Hong Kong.
- M. Agelasto. 2001. Educational Disengagement: Undermining Academic Quality at a Chinese University Archived 18 May 2007 at the ISBN 962-86141-2-6Hong Kong.
- Cunzhen Yang & Trevor Gale, "Policy Analysis: On Chinese Higher Education Entry Policy" (2004). (Archive)
- Jin, Li (15 April 2011). "Constructivism-Application in Oral English Teaching to Non-English Majors". Global Partners in Education Journal: 13.
- Ming, Zheng Fu; Abbott, Douglas A. (1 October 1992). "Preschool education in China". International Journal of Early Childhood. 24 (2): 50. S2CID 143457814.
- W. John Morgan and Bin Wu (Eds.), Higher Education Reform in China: Beyond the Expansion, London and New York: Routledge, 2011, xiii and 174 pp. ISBN 978-0-415-56413-7.
- Perez-Milans, Miguel. 2013. Urban Schools and English Language Education in Late Modern China: A Critical Sociolinguistic Ethnography. New York & London: Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-50222-1.
- Bin Wu and W. John Morgan (Eds.), Chinese Higher Education Reform and Social Justice London and New York: Routledge, 2016,xii and 160p,ISBN 978-0-415-71122-7.
- Rui Yang, "Internationalising Chinese Higher Education: A Case Study of One Major Comprehensive University".
- Yu ZHANG, "Private Education in China: Issues and Prospects" () Perspectives, Volume 4, No. 4, 31 December 2003.
- Chan, Lai, "Marketization of higher education in China : implications for national development" dissertation University of Hong Kong, 2001.
- Lai, Fung-yi, "Marketization of higher education : a case study of Guangzhou, China" dissertation University of Hong Kong, 2001, re. South China University of Technology.
- China's Vocational Universities Archived 25 January 2021 at the Wayback Machine. ERIC Digest. by Ding, Anning.
- Borjigin, Monkbat. "A case study of Language education in the Inner Mongolia " (Archive; Japanese title: 内モンゴル自治区における言語教育について ). Journal of Chiba University Eurasian Society (千葉大学ユーラシア言語文化論集) 16, 261–266, 2014-09-25. Chiba University Eurasian Society (千葉大学ユーラシア言語文化論講座). See profile at Chiba University Repository. See profile at CiNii. - In English with a Japanese abstract.
- Zhao, Xu. Competition and compassion in Chinese secondary education. New York: Palgrave MacMillan. 2015. https://www.palgrave.com/gp/book/9781137479402
- Comparative
- 'Chinese-European Cooperation in Education', European Journal of Education, Special Issue, Vol. 44 No. 1. March, 2009, ISSN 0141-8211 (print) ISSN 1465-3435 (online), Guest Editors, W. John Morgan and Albert C. Tuijnman.
- Lenora Chu (2017). Little Soldiers: An American Boy, a Chinese School, and the Global Race to Achieve. Harpers. ISBN 978-0062367853.
External links
- Ministry of Education
- Vocational Education in China, UNESCO-UNEVOC
- Education in China, webdossier by Education Worldwide, a portal of the German Education Server
- Rural China Education Foundation
- Center on Chinese Education- Teachers College, Columbia University
- Centre of Research on Education in China, Faculty of Education, The University of Hong Kong
- For China, a Reverse Brain Drain in Science? by Peter N. Spotts, The Christian Science Monitor, 1 May 2009
- "Education", China Digital Times. Annotated aggregation of current Chinese media coverage.
China education statistics
- UN Human Development Report
- Nation Master
- Ministry Of Education
- UNICEF Archived 16 February 2019 at the Wayback Machine
- Global Education Digest 2003 - Comparing Education Statistics Across the World
- Education at a glance 2007
- OECD Education Database - provides internationally comparable data on key aspects of education systems. The database covers: enrollments, graduates and new entrants by sex, age and level of education, teaching staff and expenditure.
- Unesco Database - education data from 1970 to 1998 by subject, region, country & year
- World Education Indicators - 16 most commonly used education on education