Chinook salmon
Chinook salmon | |
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Scientific classification | |
Domain: | Eukaryota |
Kingdom: | Animalia |
Phylum: | Chordata |
Class: | Actinopterygii |
Order: | Salmoniformes |
Family: | Salmonidae |
Genus: | Oncorhynchus |
Species: | O. tshawytscha
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Binomial name | |
Oncorhynchus tshawytscha (Walbaum, 1792)
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The Chinook salmon /ʃɪˈnʊk/ (Oncorhynchus tshawytscha) is the largest and most valuable species of Pacific salmon.[2] Its common name is derived from the Chinookan peoples. Other vernacular names for the species include king salmon, Quinnat salmon, Tsumen, spring salmon, chrome hog, Blackmouth, and Tyee salmon. The scientific species name is based on the Russian common name chavycha (чавыча).
Chinook are
Distribution
Natural range
Historically, the native distribution of Chinook salmon in North America ranged from the Ventura River in California in the south to Kotzebue Sound in Alaska in the north.[4] Recent studies have shown that Chinook salmon are historically native to the Guadalupe River watershed in California, the southernmost major metropolitan area hosting salmon runs in the United States.[5] Populations have disappeared from large areas where they once flourished, however,[6] or shrunk by as much as 40 percent.[7] In some regions, their inland range has been cut off, mainly by dams and habitat alterations: in Southern California, in some areas east of the Coast Ranges of California and Oregon, and in large areas in the Snake River and upper Columbia River drainage basins.[8] In certain areas such as California's Sacramento–San Joaquin River Delta, it was revealed that extremely low numbers of juvenile Chinook salmon (less than 1%) were surviving.[9]
In the western Pacific, the distribution ranges from northern Japan (
Introduced populations
In 1967, the
The species has also established itself in Patagonian waters in South America, where both introduced and escaped hatchery fish have colonized rivers and established stable spawning runs.[12] Chinook salmon have been found spawning in headwater reaches of the Rio Santa Cruz, apparently having migrated over 1,000 km (620 mi) from the ocean. The population is thought to be derived from a single stocking of juveniles in the lower river around 1930.[13]
Sporadic efforts to introduce the fish to
Description
The Chinook is blue-green, red, or purple on the back and on the top of the head, with silvery sides and white
Chinook salmon are the largest of the Pacific salmon. In the Kenai River of Alaska, mature Chinook averaged 16.8 kg (37 lb 1 oz).[17] The current sport-caught world record, 44.1 kg (97+1⁄4 lb), was caught on May 17, 1985, in the Kenai River. The commercial catch world record is 57 kg (126 lb) caught near Rivers Inlet, British Columbia, in the late 1970s.[18]
Life cycle
Chinook, like many other species of salmon, are considered
Chinook spawn in larger and deeper waters than other salmon species and can be found on the spawning redds (nests) from September to December. The female salmon may lay her eggs in four to five nesting pockets within a redd. After laying eggs, females guard the redd from four to 25 days before dying, while males seek additional mates. Chinook eggs hatch 90 to 150 days after deposition, depending upon water temperature. Egg deposits are timed to ensure the young salmon fry emerge during an appropriate season for survival and growth. Fry and parr (young fish) usually stay in fresh water for 12 to 18 months before traveling downstream to estuaries, where they remain as smolts for several months. Some Chinook return to fresh water one or two years earlier than their counterparts and are referred to as "jack" salmon. "Jack" salmon are typically less than 60 cm (24 in) long but are sexually mature.
The
Chinook eat
Salmon need suitable spawning habitat. Clean, cool, oxygenated, sediment-free fresh water is essential for egg development. Chinook use larger sediment (gravel) sizes for spawning than other Pacific salmon. Riparian vegetation and woody debris help juvenile salmon by providing cover and maintaining low water temperatures.
Chinook also need healthy ocean habitats. Juvenile salmon grow in clean, productive estuarine environments and gain the energy for migration. Later, they change physiologically to live in salt water. They rely on eelgrass and seaweeds for camouflage (protection from predators), shelter, and foraging habitat as they make their way to the open ocean. Adult fish need a rich, open ocean habitat to acquire the strength needed to travel back upstream, escape predators, and reproduce before dying. In his book King of Fish, David Montgomery writes, "The reserves of fish at sea are important to restocking rivers disturbed by natural catastrophes." Thus, it is vitally important for the fish to reach the oceans to grow into healthy adult fish to sustain the species without being impeded by man-made structures such as dams.
The bodies of water for salmon habitat must be clean and oxygenated. One sign of high productivity and growth rate in the oceans is the level of algae. Increased algal levels lead to higher levels of carbon dioxide in the water, which transfers into living organisms, fostering underwater plants and small organisms, which salmon eat.[23] Algae can filter high levels of toxins and pollutants. Thus, it is essential for algae and other water-filtering agents not to be destroyed in the oceans because they contribute to the well-being of the food chain.
With some populations endangered, precautions are necessary to prevent
In the Pacific Northwest, the summer runs of especially large Chinook once common (before dams and overfishing led to declines) were known as June hogs.
A Chinook's birthplace and later evolution can be tracked by looking at its
Fishing industry
Wild capture
The total North Pacific fisheries harvest of the Chinook salmon in 2010 was some 1.4 million fish, corresponding to 7,000
Aquaculture
The world's largest producer and market supplier of Chinook salmon is New Zealand. In 2009, New Zealand exported 5,088 tonnes (5,609 short tons) of Chinook salmon, marketed as king salmon, equating to a value of NZ$61 million in export earnings. For the year ended March 2011, this amount had increased to NZ$85 million.[27][28] New Zealand accounts for about half of the global production of Chinook salmon, and about half of New Zealand's production is exported. Japan is New Zealand's largest export market, with stock also being supplied to other countries of the Pacific Rim, including Australia.[29]
Farming of the species in New Zealand began in the 1970s when hatcheries were initially set up to enhance and support wild fish stocks, with the first commercial operations starting in 1976. Today, the salmon are hatched in land-based hatcheries (several of which exist) and transferred to sea cages or freshwater farms, where they are grown out to the harvestable size of 3–4 kilograms (7–9 pounds). The
Regulations and monitoring programmes ensure salmon are farmed in a sustainable manner. The planning and approval process for new salmon farms in New Zealand considers the farm's potential environmental effects, its effects on fishing activities (if it is a marine farm), and any possible cultural and social effects. In the interest of fish welfare, a number of New Zealand salmon farming operations anaesthetise salmon before slaughter using Aqui-S™, an organically based anaesthetic developed in New Zealand that is safe for use in food and that has been favourably reported on by the British Humane Slaughter Association. In recognition of the sustainable, environmentally conscious practices, the New Zealand salmon farming industry has been acknowledged as the world's greenest by the Global Aquaculture Performance Index.[30]
Chile is the only country other than New Zealand currently producing significant quantities of farmed Chinook salmon.[25] The United States has not produced farmed Chinook in commercial quantities since 1994.[25] In Canada, most commercial Chinook salmon farming ceased by 2009.[31]
Management
Pacific coast
Fisheries in the U.S. and Canada are limited by impacts to weak and endangered salmon runs. Nine populations of Chinook salmon are listed under the U.S.
The Center for Biological Diversity and Pacific Rivers, a conservation advocacy group, are currently petitioning for an ESA listing on Chinook in several river basins in Washington state, including the Chehalis, Quinault, Queets, Hoh and Quillayute. The petition, filed in 2023, focuses on spring-run Chinook, the region's most vulnerable salmon population.[34]
In April 2008, commercial fisheries in both Oregon and California were closed in response to the low count of Chinook salmon present because of the collapse of the Sacramento River run, one of the biggest south of the Columbia.[35] In April 2009, California again canceled the season.[36] The Pacific Fishery Management Council's goal for the Sacramento River run is an escapement total (fish that return to freshwater spawn areas and hatcheries) of 122,000–180,000 fish. The 2007 escapement was estimated at 88,000, and the 2008 estimate was 66,000 fish.[37] Scientists from universities and federal, state, and tribal agencies concluded the 2004 and 2005 broods were harmed by poor ocean conditions in 2005 and 2006, in addition to "a long-term, steady degradation of the freshwater and estuarine environment." Such conditions included weak upwelling, warm sea surface temperatures, and low densities of food.[37]
In Oregon, the 2010 spring Chinook run was forecast to increase by up to 150% over 2009 populations, growing from 200,000 to over 500,000, making this the largest run in recorded history. Lower temperatures in 2008 North Pacific waters brought in fatter plankton, which, along with greater outflows of Columbia River water, fed the resurgent populations. The Oregon Department of Fish and Wildlife estimated 80% were hatchery-born. Chinook runs in other habitats have not recovered proportionately.[38]
In April 2016, Coleman National Fish Hatchery outside of Red Bluff, California, released 12 million juvenile Chinook salmon, with many salmon being tagged for monitoring. The release was done in hopes of helping restore the salmon population of Battle Creek.[39][40]
In June 2021, the
In an effort to restore the fish habitat of the
Lake Michigan
Introduced Chinook salmon in Lake Michigan are sought after by tourists enjoying chartered fishing trips.[46] A 2016 survey of Wisconsin anglers found they would, on average, pay $140 for a trip to catch Chinook salmon, $90 for lake trout, and $180 for walleye.[47] Should the Chinook salmon fishery collapse and be replaced with a native lake trout fishery, the economic value would decrease by 80%.[48]
Recent data
Since the later 1970s, the size and age range of Chinook salmon have been declining[49] according to studies along the northwest Pacific coast from Alaska to California for the years of 1977 to 2015 which examined about 1.5 million Chinook salmon.[49] Ocean-5 Chinook (which means the fish has spent five years in the ocean) have declined from being up to 3–5% of the population to being almost none.[49] Ocean-4 chinook are also seeing a rapid decline in their population.[49] This means that Chinook are not living as long as they used to. This trend has mostly been seen in Alaska, but also Oregon and Washington.[49]
New trends have also been seen regarding the size of Ocean-1, 2, 3, 4, and 5 from 1975 to 2015. The size of Chinook who have spent one and two years in the ocean has been rising, while the size of Chinook of three to five years has been declining.[49] The size increase was seen mainly in hatchery fish, not wild, and hatchery fish were often larger than wild, but the decrease was seen in both types of populations.[49] Factors have been discovered that have influenced the size of the Chinook. They include, but are not limited to, the years they spent in fresh water before migrating to the ocean, the time of year they were caught, which season run they participated in, and where they were caught.[49] However, what is causing these negative trends is still not fully known or researched. Some possibilities can be climate change, pollution, and fishing practices.[49]
In California specifically, Chinook populations in the rivers have been declining.[50] Chinook that are migratory are already more vulnerable, and the California drought made them even more vulnerable. A study was done specifically on the California Delta over three years, and it was discovered that the Chinook salmon had a low survival rate for different reasons, and as a result, the Chinook salmon population here has been on a decline.[50] Some of the factors affecting the populations include the route used during migration, drought conditions, the amount of snowmelt, and infrastructure that affects the flow of water (such as dams and levees).[50] Each of these factors has significantly impacted Chinook survival rates, as most have made it more challenging for Chinook to travel from their spawning grounds to the ocean and back. The fluctuation of water depth as well as temperature have made this more challenging, and as a result, Chinook populations are declining. Which rivers or streams the Chinook are in highly impacts their survival rates, as some, like the Chinook in the Fraser River, only have a 30% survival rate.[50] More studies and actions are needed for there to be an impact on the survival rates of the Chinook. Due to many of these reasons, the National Wildlife Federation has listed Chinook populations as endangered or threatened.[51]
Cultural aspects
The Chinook salmon is spiritually and culturally prized among certain First Nations peoples. For tribes on the Northwest coast, salmon were an important part of their culture for spiritual reasons and food.[52] Many celebrate the first spring Chinook caught each year with "first-salmon ceremonies." While salmon fishing in general remains important economically for many tribal communities, it is especially the Chinook harvest that is typically the most valuable. The relation to salmon for the tribes in this area is similar to how other tribes relied more on buffalo for food, and have many legends and spiritual ties to them.[52]
Chinook salmon were described and enthusiastically eaten by the Lewis and Clark Expedition. Lewis wrote that, when fresh, they tasted better than any other fish he had ever eaten. They did not particularly like dried or "pounded" salmon.[53] Lewis and Clark knew about Pacific salmon but had never seen one. The Western world had known about Pacific salmon since the late 18th century. Maritime fur traders and explorers, such as George Vancouver, frequently acquired salmon by trade with the indigenous people of the Northwest coast.[54] Lewis and Clark first encountered Chinook salmon as a gift from Chief Cameahwait, on August 13, 1805, near Lemhi Pass. Tasting it convinced Lewis they had crossed the continental divide.[55]
In Oregon, many Native American tribes, including the
Other tribes, including the
Notes
- ^ This may be either Metlakatla, Alaska, or Metlakatla, British Columbia. The uncredited photograph is from the collection of Henry Wellcome, which includes images from both communities.
References
- ^ Oncorhynchus tshawytscha https://explorer.natureserve.org/Taxon/ELEMENT_GLOBAL.2.102499/Oncorhynchus_tshawytscha
- ISSN 1467-2960.
- ^ "National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. North Central California Coast Recovery Domain" (PDF). westcoast.fisheries.noaa.gov. National Marine Fisheries Service Southwest Region. Archived from the original (PDF) on 15 December 2013. Retrieved 9 May 2016.
- ISBN 978-1-4516-0355-2. Retrieved 2017-01-14.
- ^ Simons, Eric (24 June 2020). "Did Salmon Always Live in San José?". Bay Nature Magazine. Retrieved 30 December 2020.
- ^ "Salmon: Background". Pacific Fishery Management Council. Retrieved 2010-03-05.
- ^ a b Cameron, Mindy (2002-08-18). "Salmon Return; A Public Conversation About the Future of a Northwest Icon". The Seattle Times. Seattle, Washington.
- ^ ISBN 978-0-520-24504-4.
- . Retrieved 8 May 2016.
- ^ "Chinook Salmon". Michigan.gov. Retrieved 20 May 2022.
it wasn't until Michigan planted them in 1967 that they became established.
- ISBN 1-58851-731-4, Independence Books, 2001
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- ISBN 978-0-12-088414-8. Retrieved 19 October 2011.
- ^ a b c d McDowell, R.M. (1994) Gamekeepers for the Nation. Chapter 18. Canterbury University Press: Christchurch.
- ^ McDowall, R. M. (1994). The origins of New Zealand's chinook salmon, Oncorhynchus tshawytscha. Marine Fisheries Review, 1/1/1994.
- ^ "Marine saltwater data" (PDF). wdfw.wa.gov. 2014. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2017-02-25. Retrieved 2014-12-04.
- ^ Burger, C. V., Wilmot, R. L., & Wangaard, D. B. (1985). Comparison of spawning areas and times for two runs of chinook salmon (Oncorhynchus tshawytscha) in the Kenai River, Alaska. Canadian Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences, 42(4), 693-700.
- ISBN 0-660-10239-0
- ^ "CHINOOK SALMON FACTSBlue Face Baby". Pacific States Marine Fisheries Commission. 2010-03-05. Retrieved 2010-03-05.
1996-12-16
- ^ West-Eberhard, M.J. (2003). Developmental Plasticity and Evolution. Oxford University Press.
- ^ Baxter, Randall (May 1991). Chinook Salmon Spawning Behavior : Evidence for Size-dependent Male Spawning Success and Female Mate Choice (PDF). Humboldt State University. pp. iii. Retrieved May 8, 2016.
- ^ "Chinook | Yukon River Panel".
- ^ Klinger, Terrie. Lecture. 15 April 2005. What Defines the Pacific Northwest Marine Realm Ecologically and Geographically? University of Washington; Seattle, WA.
- ^ "CHINOOK SALMON HOLD TINY ARCHIVES WITH THEIR ENTIRE LIFE HISTORY". wallstreetotc.com. 2015-05-18. Archived from the original on 2015-05-20. Retrieved 2015-05-18.
- ^ a b c d e f g h "Fisheries and Aquaculture Department Statistics". Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. Retrieved 2012-09-15.
- ^ Annual Statistics 2010: Commercial salmon catch by species and country North Pacific Anadromous Fish Commission Statistical Yearbook. Retrieved 2015 March 16. The statistics do not include fish taken in Russian waters by non-Russian fleets.
- ^ a b c "Aquaculture New Zealand Industry Overview". Archived from the original on August 6, 2011. Retrieved September 20, 2011.
- ^ a b c "AQUACULTURE.GOVT.NZ/Industry development". Retrieved September 26, 2011.
- ^ a b "The NZ Salmon Farmer's Association Inc". The association of the New Zealand Salmon farming industry. Archived from the original on October 6, 2011. Retrieved September 20, 2011.
- ^ "Global Aquaculture Performance Index". Seafood Ecology Research, University of Victoria, Canada. Archived from the original on October 11, 2011. Retrieved September 20, 2011.
- ^ Statistics Canada. "Aquaculture Activity in Canada". Archived from the original on 2012-06-15. Retrieved 2012-10-14.
- ^ "Chinook Salmon - Protected". NOAA Fisheries. Retrieved 2019-09-14.
- ^ Neville, Helen (10 November 2022). "Helen Neville: The need to breach the Lower Snake River dams: A look at 2022 fish returns". The Spokesman-Review. Retrieved 5 December 2022.
- ^ "Federal 'Endangered' Listing Sought for Chehalis River's Spring Chinook, Others". The Daily Chronicle. 2023-05-24. Retrieved 2024-01-16.
- ^ Blankship, Donna. Salmon Fishing Banned Along U.S. West Coast. National Geographic. [1]. April, 2008.
- ^ David Gorn. "What's Killing California's Salmon?". NPR.org. NPR.
- ^ a b Lindley, S. T.; Grimes, C. B.; Mohr, M. S.; Peterson, W.; Stein, J.; Anderson, J. T.; Botsford, L. W.; Bottom, D. L.; Busack, C. A.; Collier, T. K.; Ferguson, J.; Garza, J. C.; Grover, A. M.; Hankin, D. G.; Kope, R. G.; Lawson, P. W.; Low, A.; MacFarlane, R. B.; Moore, K.; Palmer-Zwahlen, M.; Schwing, F. B.; Smith, J.; Tracy, C.; Webb, R.; Wells, B. K.; Williams, T. H. (2009), What caused the Sacramento River fall Chinook stock collapse? (PDF), Pacific Fisheries Management Council, archived from the original (PDF) on 2019-05-03, retrieved 2009-11-23
- ^ Millman, Joel (January 21, 2010). "Fish Boom Makes Splash in Oregon". Wall Street Journal. Retrieved January 21, 2010.
- ^ Anderson. "Millions Of Chinook Salmon Released Into Northern California Waterways". CBS. CBS. Retrieved May 8, 2016.
- ^ http://www.casalmon.org/salmon-snapshots/population/battle-creek Salmon Snapshots / Battle Creek / 2014 Population
- ^ "Final plan for water releases into Sacramento River could kill up to 88% of endangered salmon run". 16 June 2021.
- ^ a b c d "FAQs". Klamath River Renewal Corporation. October 17, 2023. Retrieved October 17, 2023.
- ^ "With one down, Klamath dam removal proceeds on schedule". opb. Retrieved 2023-10-25.
- ^ Implementation plan for the reintroduction of anadromous fishes into the Oregon portion of the Upper Klamath Basin (PDF) (Report). Oregon Department of Fish and Wildlife. December 2021. Retrieved October 17, 2023.
- ^ "FREQUENTLY ASKED QUESTIONS REGARDING THE KLAMATH RIVER HYDROELECTRIC DAM REMOVAL PROJECT AND THE REINTRODUCTION OF ANADROMOUS FISHES IN OREGON" (PDF). Oregon Department of Fish and Wildlife. December 2022. Retrieved October 24, 2023.
- ^ It’s No Fish Tale… Charter Boat Captain Is Living His Dream by Joel Waldinger, November 5, 2015, Wisconsin Life, PBS
- ^ Wisconsin Sea Grant documents value of recreational fishing in Lake Michigan by Aaron R. Conklin, Wisconsin Sea Grant, July 10, 2017
- ^ Can Native Species Compete with Valuable Exotics? Measuring Willingness to Pay for Recreational Fishing in Lake Michigan by Raynor, Jennifer and Phaneuf, Daniel, Presentation for the 2018 International Institute of Fisheries Economics & Trade
- ^ ISSN 1467-2960.
- ^ S2CID 254473862.
- ^ "Chinook Salmon". The National Wildlife Federation. April 19, 2022. Retrieved April 19, 2022.
- ^ a b "Native American Indian Salmon Legends, Meaning and Symbolism from the Myths of Many Tribes". www.native-languages.org. Retrieved 2022-04-19.
- ISBN 978-0-8160-5256-1. Retrieved 19 October 2011.
- ISBN 978-0-88629-062-7. Retrieved 19 October 2011.
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- ^ .
- ^ Environmental Impact Report for the Lower Klamath Project License Surrender (PDF) (Report). Vol. III. California State Water Resources Control Board. April 2020. Retrieved October 24, 2023.
- ^ "About Us - Bring the Salmon Home". 2022-01-04. Retrieved 2023-10-25.
- ^ "Salmon | Traditional Animal Foods of Indigenous Peoples of Northern North America - Animals - Fish - Searun Fish". traditionalanimalfoods.org. Retrieved 2022-04-19.
- ^ "Alaska State Fish". statesymbolsusa.org. Retrieved 2014-02-02.
- ^ "Oregon State Fish". statesymbolsusa.org. Retrieved 2014-02-02.
Further reading
- "Oncorhynchus tshawytscha". Integrated Taxonomic Information System. Retrieved 30 January 2006.
- Froese, Rainer; Pauly, Daniel (eds.) (2005). "Oncorhynchus tshawytscha" in FishBase. 10 2005 version.
- Christie, Patrick. Lecture. 22 April 2005. Vashon-Maury Islands Case Study: Incompatible Desires? Growth and Maintaining Salmon Populations in Puget Sound. University of Washington; Seattle, WA.
- Montgomery, David. King of Fish: The Thousand-Year Run of Salmon. Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 2003.
- Chinook salmon NOAA FishWatch. Retrieved 4 November 2012.
External links
- Fish Passage Center, monitoring salmon spawning and migration
- ESA Chinook Listings
- Potential causes of size trends in Yukon River chinook salmon populations / prepared by the United States and Canada Yukon River Joint Technical Committee, Salmon Size Subcommittee. Hosted by the Alaska State Publications Program.
- Spawning abundance of chinook salmon in the Chickamin River in 2004 / by Glenn M. Freeman, Scott A. McPherson, and Daniel J. Reed. Hosted by Alaska State Publications Program