Chola dynasty

Page extended-protected
Source: Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia.
This article is about the Chola Dynasty. For the medieval empire, see Chola Empire.

Chola Dynasty
Imperial, and Royal, dynasty
Imperial coin of Emperor Rajaraja I (985–1014). Uncertain Tamilnadu mint. Legend "Chola, conqueror of the Gangas" in Tamil, seated tiger with two fish.
Country
List
EtymologyChola Nadu
FounderIlamchetchenni (first documented)
Final rulerRajendra III (main branch)
Deposition1279
Cadet branches
Chola Kings and Emperors
Early Cholas
Ellalan205 BCE– c. 161 BCE
Kulakkottan
Ilamchetchenni
Karikala
Nedunkilli
Nalankilli
Killivalavan
Kopperuncholan
Kochchenganan
Perunarkilli
Interregnum (c. 200 – c. 848 CE)
Athirajendra
 1067–1070
Rajendra III
1246–1279
Related
Related dynasties
Rajahnate of Cebu
Rajahnate of Sanmalan
Chola society
Part of a series on
History of Tamil Nadu
Main
Sangam period
Medieval history
Categories

The Chola dynasty (Tamil:

Medieval Cholas in the mid-9th century CE. As one of the Three Crowned Kings of Tamilakam, along with the Chera and Pandya
, the dynasty continued to govern over varying territories until the 13th century CE.

The heartland of the Cholas was the fertile valley of the

Kulothunga Chola I, the empire became a military, economic and cultural powerhouse in South Asia and Southeast Asia.[2]

Origins

There is very little written evidence for the Cholas before the 7th century CE. The main sources of information about the early Cholas are

Buddhist text written down during the 5th century CE, recounts several conflicts between the inhabitants of Sri Lanka and Cholas in the 1st century BCE.[7]

A commonly held view is that Chola is, like

Jataka stories of Buddhism.[10] In Tamil lexicon Chola means Soazhi or Saei denoting a newly formed kingdom, in the lines of Pandya or the old country.[11]
Cenni in Tamil means Head.

History

The history of the Cholas falls into four periods: the

Later Chola dynasty of Kulothunga Chola I from the third quarter of the 11th century.[c]

Early Cholas

Main article: Early Cholas
Further information: Legendary early Chola kings

The earliest Chola kings for whom there is tangible evidence are mentioned in the Sangam literature. Scholars generally agree that this literature belongs to the late centuries before the common era and the early centuries of the common era.[13] The internal chronology of this literature is still far from settled, and at present a connected account of the history of the period cannot be derived. It records the names of the kings and the princes, and of the poets who extolled them.[14]

The Sangam literature also records legends about mythical Chola kings.

Mahavamsa mentions that a Chola prince known as Ellalan, invaded the Rajarata kingdom of Sri Lanka and conquered it in 235 BCE with the help of a Mysore army.[15][22]

Interregnum

South India in BC 300, showing the Chera, Pandya and Chola countries

There is not much information about the transition period of around three centuries from the end of the Sangam age (c. 300) to that in which the Pandyas and

Karikala Chola.[28] The Cholas had to wait for another three centuries until the accession of Vijayalaya Chola belonging to Pottapi Chola family in the second quarter of the ninth century to re-establish their dynasty as independent rulers by overthrowing Pallavas and Pandyas.[29] As per inscriptions found in and around Thanjavur, Thanjavur kingdom was ruled by Mutharaiyars / Muthurajas for three centuries. Their reign was ended by Vijayalaya Chola who captured Thanjavur from Ilango Mutharaiyar
between 848 and 851 CE.

Epigraphy and literature provide a few glimpses of the transformations that came over this line of kings during this long interval. It is certain that when the power of the Cholas fell to its lowest ebb and that of the Pandyas and Pallavas rose to the north and south of them,[18][30] this dynasty was compelled to seek refuge and patronage under their more successful rivals.[31][e] Despite their reduced powers, the Pandyas and Pallavas accepted Chola princesses in marriage, possibly out of regard for their reputation.[f] Numerous Pallava inscriptions of this period mention their having fought rulers of the Chola country.[g]

Uttama Chola found in Sri Lanka showing the tiger emblem of the Chola and in Nagari script.[34]

Imperial Cholas

Main article:
Medieval Cholas
See also:
List of Chola Temples in Bangalore

The Chola Empire was founded in 848 CE by Vijayalaya, a descendant of Early Cholas. [35]

Rajaraja I at Brihadisvara Temple at Thanjavur
.

The Chola dynasty was at the peak of its influence and power during the 11th Century

Rashtrakuta dynasty in the battle of Vallala and also defeated the Pandyas.[37]

Rajaraja  I and Rajendra I would expand the dynasty to its imperial state, creating an influential empire in the

Brihadeeswarar Temple was also built in this era.[38]

Rajendra  I conquered

Pala dynasty of Bengal and reached the Ganges river in north India.[39] Rajendra Chola I built a new capital called Gangaikonda Cholapuram to celebrate his victories in northern India.[40] Rajendra Chola I successfully invaded the Srivijaya kingdom in Southeast Asia which led to the decline of the empire there.[41][42][43][44] He also completed the conquest of the Rajarata kingdom of Sri Lanka and sent Three diplomatic missions were sent to China in 1016, 1033, and 1077.[45][46]

Brihadisvara Temple
.
Brihadisvara Temple, a cupolic dome (25 tons), is octagonal and rests on a single block of granite, weighing 80 tons.[citation needed
]
Thanjavur District
.

The

Hoysalas under Vishnuvardhana, where he based himself with his son Narasimha I in-charge at the Hoysala capital Dwarasamudra around 1149, and with the Kalachuris occupying the Chalukyan capital for over 35 years from around 1150–1151, the Chalukya kingdom was already starting to dissolve.[50]

The Cholas under

Kulothunga Chola III collaborated to herald the dissolution of the Chalukyas by aiding Hoysalas under Veera Ballala II, the son-in-law of the Chola monarch, and defeated the Western Chalukyas in a series of wars with Someshvara IV between 1185 and 1190. The last Chalukya king's territories did not even include the erstwhile Chalukyan capitals Badami, Manyakheta or Kalyani. That was the final dissolution of Chalukyan power though the Chalukyas existed only in name since 1135–1140. But the Cholas remained stable until 1215, were absorbed by the Pandyan empire and ceased to exist by 1279.[51]

On the other hand, from 1150 CE to 1280 CE, Pandya became the staunchest opponents of the Cholas and tried to win independence for their traditional territories. Thus, this period saw constant warfare between the Cholas and the Pandyas. Besides, Cholas regularly fought with the Eastern

Kulottunga Chola III reinforced the hold of the Chola territories by quelling further rebellions and disturbances in the Rajarata area of Sri Lanka and Madurai. He also defeated Hoysala generals who fought under Veera Ballala II at Karuvur. Furthermore, he also continued holding on to traditional territories in Tamil country, Eastern Gangavadi, Draksharama, Vengi, and Kalinga. However, after defeating Veera Ballala II, Kulottunga Chola III entered into a marital alliance with him through Ballala's marriage to a Chola princess, which improved Kulottunga Chola III's relationship with Hoysalas.[52][h]

Overseas conquests

See also:
Chola rule in Sri Lanka
Rajendra I
. c. 1030

During the reign of Rajaraja Chola I and his successors Rajendra Chola I, Virarajendra Chola and Kulothunga Chola I the Chola armies invaded Sri Lanka, the Maldives and parts of Southeast Asia like Malaysia, Indonesia and Southern Thailand[54] of the Srivijaya Empire in the 11th century. Rajaraja Chola I launched several naval campaigns that resulted in the capture of Sri Lanka, Maldives and the Malabar Coast.[55] In 1025, Rajendra Chola launched naval raids on the ports of Srivijaya and against the Burmese kingdom of Pegu.[56] A Chola inscription states that he captured or plundered 14 places, which have been identified with Palembang, Tambralinga and Kedah among others.[57] A second invasion was led by Virarajendra Chola, who conquered Kedah in Malaysia of Srivijaya in the late 11th century.[58] Chola invasion ultimately failed to install direct administration over Srivijaya, since the invasion was short and only meant to plunder the wealth of Srivijaya. However, this invasion gravely weakened the Srivijayan hegemony and enabled the formation of regional kingdoms. Although the invasion was not followed by direct Cholan occupation and the region was unchanged geographically, there were huge consequences in trade. Tamil traders encroached on the Srivijayan realm traditionally controlled by Malay traders and the Tamil guilds' influence increased on the Malay Peninsula and the north coast of Sumatra.

Later Cholas (1070–1279)

Main article:
Later Cholas
Later Chola Kingdom under Kulothunga Chola I (1070–1120 C.E)

Marital and political alliances between the

Athirajendra Chola, was assassinated in a civil disturbance in 1070, and Kulothunga Chola I, the son of Ammanga Devi and Rajaraja Narendra, ascended the Chola throne. Thus began the Later Chola dynasty.[61]

The Later Chola dynasty was led by capable rulers such as Kulothunga Chola I, his son

Hoysala Empire. However, these were only temporary setbacks, because immediately following the accession of King Vikrama Chola, the son and successor of Kulothunga Chola I, the Cholas lost no time in recovering the province of Vengi by defeating Chalukya Someshvara III and also recovering Gangavadi from the Hoysalas. The Chola empire, though not as strong as between 850 and 1150, was still largely territorially intact under Rajaraja Chola II (1146–1175) a fact attested by the construction and completion of the third grand Chola architectural marvel, the chariot-shaped Airavatesvara Temple at Dharasuram on the outskirts of modern Kumbakonam. Chola administration and territorial integrity until the rule of Kulothunga Chola III was stable and very prosperous up to 1215, but during his rule itself, the decline of the Chola power started following his defeat by Maravarman Sundara Pandiyan II in 1215–16.[62] Subsequently, the Cholas also lost control of the island of Lanka and were driven out by the revival of Sinhala power.[citation needed
]

In continuation of the decline, also marked by the resurgence of the Pandyan dynasty as the most powerful rulers in South India, a lack of a controlling central administration in its erstwhile Pandyan territories prompted several claimants to the Pandya throne to cause a civil war in which the Sinhalas and the Cholas were involved by proxy. Details of the Pandyan civil war and the role played by the Cholas and Sinhalas, are present in the

Mahavamsa as well as the Pallavarayanpettai Inscriptions.[63][64]

Decline

The setbacks suffered during the final years of Kulothunga I left a somewhat diminished empire. Kulothunga's successors

Pandyas.[66] Meanwhile, the Chola succession was getting murkier and murkier with disputes and intrigues during the periods of Rajadhiraja II and Kulothunga III.[67]

The Cholas under

Kulothunga Chola III collaborated to herald the dissolution of the Chalukyas by aiding Hoysalas under Veera Ballala II, the son-in-law of the Chola monarch and defeated the Western Chalukyas in a series of wars with Someshvara IV between 1185 and 1190. The last Chalukya king's territories did not even include the erstwhile Chalukyan capitals Badami, Manyakheta or Kalyani. That was the final dissolution of Chalukyan power though the Chalukyas existed only in name since 1135–1140. But the Cholas remained stable until 1215, were absorbed by the Pandyan empire and ceased to exist by 1279.[51]

His successor, the last great Chola monarch

Kulottunga Chola III reinforced the hold of the Chola territories by quelling further rebellions and disturbances in the Rajarata area of Sri Lanka and Madurai. He also defeated Hoysala generals who fought under Veera Ballala II at Karuvur. Eastern Gangavadi, Draksharama, Vengi, and Kalinga. However, after defeating Veera Ballala II, Kulottunga Chola III entered into a marital alliance with him through Ballala's marriage to a Chola princess, which improved the Kulottunga Chola III's relationship with Hoysalas.[52]

Administration and society

Chola territory

Main article: Chola Nadu
class=notpageimage|
Main polities in continental Asia c. 1100.

According to Tamil tradition, the Chola country comprised the region that includes the modern-day

Adiperukku, in which the whole nation took part.[citation needed
]

Kaveripoompattinam on the coast near the Kaveri delta was a major port town.

Nagappattinam as the most important centres of Cholas.[68] These two towns became hubs of trade and commerce and attracted many religious faiths, including Buddhism.[i] Roman ships found their way into these ports. Roman coins dating from the early centuries of the common era have been found near the Kaveri delta.[70][page needed][71]

The other major towns were Thanjavur, Uraiyur and Kudanthai, now known as Kumbakonam.[15] After Rajendra Chola moved his capital to Gangaikonda Cholapuram, Thanjavur lost its importance.[72]

Cultural contributions

Detail of the main vimanam (tower) of the Thanjavur Temple.

Under the Cholas, the Tamil country reached new heights of excellence in

temples and sculpture in stone and bronze reached a finesse never before achieved in India.[75]

The Chola conquest of Kadaram (Kedah) and Srivijaya, and their continued commercial contacts with the

Chinese Empire, enabled them to influence the local cultures.[76] Examples of the Hindu cultural influence found today throughout Southeast Asia owe much to the legacy of the Cholas. For example, the great temple complex at Prambanan in Indonesia exhibits several similarities with South Indian architecture.[77][78]

According to the Malay chronicle Sejarah Melayu, the rulers of the

Malacca sultanate claimed to be descendants of the kings of the Chola empire.[79][full citation needed] Chola rule is remembered in Malaysia today as many princes there have names ending with Cholan or Chulan, one such being Raja Chulan, the Raja of Perak.[80][full citation needed][81][full citation needed
]

Literature

Main article:
Chola literature
Chola bronze from the Ulster Museum

The Imperial Chola era was the golden age of Tamil culture, marked by the importance of literature. Chola records cite many works, including the Rajarajesvara Natakam, Viranukkaviyam and Kannivana Puranam.[82]

The revival of

Jivaka-chintamani by Tirutakkatevar and Sulamani by Tolamoli are among notable works by non-Hindu authors.[85][86][87] The grammarian Buddhamitra wrote a text on Tamil grammar called Virasoliyam.[88] Commentaries were written on the great text Tolkāppiyam which deals with grammar but which also mentions ethics of warfare.[89][90][91] Periapuranam was another remarkable literary piece of this period. This work is in a sense a national epic of the Tamil people because it treats the lives of the saints who lived in all parts of Tamil Nadu and belonged to all classes of society, men and women, high and low, educated and uneducated.[92]

Kulothunga III. Jayamkondar's Kalingattuparani, draws a clear boundary between history and fictitious conventions.[93][94] The Tamil poet Ottakuttan was a contemporary of Kulothunga I and served at the courts of three of Kulothunga's successors.[95][96]

Nannul is a Chola era work on Tamil grammar. It discusses all five branches of grammar and, according to Berthold Spuler, is still relevant today and is one of the most distinguished normative grammars of literary Tamil.[97]

The Telugu Choda period was in particular significant for the development of Telugu literature under the patronage of the rulers. It was the age in which the great Telugu poets Tikkana, Ketana, Marana and Somana enriched the literature with their contributions. Tikkana Somayaji wrote Nirvachanottara Ramayanamu and Andhra Mahabharatamu. Abhinava Dandi Ketana wrote Dasakumaracharitramu, Vijnaneswaramu and Andhra Bhashabhushanamu. Marana wrote Markandeya Purana in Telugu. Somana wrote Basava Purana. Tikkana is one of the kavitrayam who translated Mahabharata into Telugu language.[98]

Of the devotional literature, the arrangement of the Shaivite canon into eleven books was the work of Nambi Andar Nambi, who lived close to the end of the 10th century.[99][100] However, relatively few Vaishnavite works were composed during the Later Chola period, possibly because of the rulers' apparent animosity towards them.[101]

Religion

Chola Statue of Nataraja at the Metropolitan Museum of Art
, New York City

In general, Cholas were followers of

Shaivite canon as a Hindu saint.[19]

In popular culture

Standing Hanuman, Chola Dynasty, 11th century.

The Chola dynasty has inspired many Tamil authors.

Kalki during the mid-1950s.[105] The serialisation lasted for nearly five years and every week its publication was awaited with great interest.[106]

Kalki's earlier historical romance, Parthiban Kanavu, deals with the fortunes of the imaginary Chola prince Vikraman, who was supposed to have lived as a feudatory of the Pallava king Narasimhavarman I during the 7th century. The period of the story lies within the interregnum during which the Cholas were in decline before Vijayalaya Chola revived their fortunes.[107] Parthiban Kanavu was also serialised in the Kalki weekly during the early 1950s.[citation needed]

Udaiyar, which is based on the circumstances surrounding Rajaraja Chola's construction of the Brihadisvara Temple in Thanjavur.[109]

There were stage productions based on the life of Rajaraja Chola during the 1950s and in 1973 Sivaji Ganesan acted in a screen adaptation of a play titled Rajaraja Cholan. The Cholas are featured in the History of the World board game, produced by Avalon Hill.[citation needed]

The Cholas were the subject of the 2010 Tamil-language film Aayirathil Oruvan, the 2022 film Ponniyin Selvan: I and the 2023 film Ponniyin Selvan: II. The 2022 and 2023 movies were based on the novel of the same name.

See also

References

Notes

  1. K.A. Nilakanta Sastri, A History of Cyril and Lulu Charles, p 106. It is likely to extend not longer than five or six generations.[3]
  2. ^ The Ashokan inscriptions speak of the Cholas in the plural, implying that, in his time, there were more than one Chola.[6]
  3. Athirajendra Chola. Kulothunga Chola I, ascended the throne in 1070.[12]
  4. Senguttuvan, belonged to the 2nd century and this means the poems mentioning Senguttuvan and his contemporaries date to that period.[citation needed
    ]
  5. ^ Pandya Kadungon and Pallava Simhavishnu overthrew the Kalabhras. Acchchutakalaba is likely the last Kalabhra king.[30]
  6. Periyapuranam, a Shaivite religious work of the 12th century tells us of the Pandya king Nindrasirnedumaran, who had for his queen a Chola princess.[32]
  7. ^ Copperplate grants of the Pallava Buddhavarman (late 4th century) mention that the king as the "underwater fire that destroyed the ocean of the Chola army".[33] Simhavishnu (575–600) is also stated to have seized the Chola country. Mahendravarman I was called the "crown of the Chola country" in his inscriptions.[citation needed]
  8. ^ "After the second Pandya War, Kulottunga undertook a campaign to check the growth of Hoysala power in that quarter. He re-established Chola suzerainty over the Adigaimans of Tagadur, defeated a Chera ruler in battle and performed a vijayabhisheka in Karuvur (1193). His relations with the Hoysala Ballala II seems to have become friendly afterwards, for Ballala married a Chola princess".[53]
  9. ^ The Buddhist work Milinda Panha dated to the early Christian era, mentions Kolapttna among the best-known seaports on the Chola coast.[69]

Citations

  1. ^ K. A. Nilakanta Sastri, A History of South India, p 157
  2. ^ Keay 2011, p. 215.
  3. ^ Sastri (1984), p. 3
  4. ^ "KING ASHOKA: His Edicts and His Times". www.cs.colostate.edu. Retrieved 7 October 2018.
  5. ^ Ma. Ile Taṅkappā, Ā. Irā Vēṅkaṭācalapati. Red Lilies and Frightened Birds. Penguin Books India, 2011. p. xii.
  6. ^ Sastri (1984), p. 20
  7. ^ John Bowman,Columbia Chronologies of Asian History and Culture, p.401
  8. ^ Prasad (1988), p. 120
  9. ^ Kalidos, Raju. History and Culture of the Tamils: From Prehistoric Times to the President's Rule. Vijay Publications, 1976. p. 43.
  10. ^ Sastri (1984), pp. 19–20
  11. ^ Archaeological News A. L. Frothingham, Jr. The American Journal of Archaeology and the History of the Fine Arts, Vol. 4, No. 1 (Mar., 1998), pp. 69–125
  12. ^ Sastri (2002), pp. 170–172
  13. ISBN 978-90-04-03591-1
    .
  14. ^ Sastri (2002), pp. 19–20, 104–106
  15. ^ a b c d e Tripathi (1967), p. 457
  16. ^ Majumdar (1987), p. 137
  17. ^ a b Kulke & Rothermund (2001), p. 104
  18. ^ a b Tripathi (1967), p. 458
  19. ^ a b Sastri (2002), p. 116
  20. ^ Sastri (2002), pp. 105–106
  21. ^ Sastri (2002), p. 113
  22. ISBN 978-81-206-0559-6
    .
  23. ^ Sastri (2002), pp. 130, 135, 137
  24. ^ Majumdar (1987), p. 139
  25. ^ Thapar (1995), p. 268
  26. ^ Sastri (2002), p. 135
  27. ^ K.A., Nilakanta Sastri (1955). A History of South India from Prehistoric to the Fall of Vijayanagar. Oxford University Press. pp. Page=139–140.
  28. ^ Hultzsch, Eugene (1911–1912). "Epigraphia Indica". Epigraphia Indica. 11: 339 – via Archaeological Survey of India, Government of India.
  29. ^ K.A., Nilakanta Sastri (1955). A History of South India from Prehistoric to the Fall of Vijayanagar. Oxford University Press. pp. Page=139–140.
  30. ^ a b Sastri (1984), p. 102
  31. ^ Kulke & Rothermund (2001), p. 115
  32. ^ Chopra, Ravindran & Subrahmanian (2003), p. 95
  33. ^ Sastri (1984), pp. 104–105
  34. ^ Chopra, Ravindran & Subrahmanian (2003), p. 31
  35. ^ Sen (1999), pp. 477–478
  36. ^ Sastri (2002), p. 157
  37. ^ Sen (1999), pp. 373
  38. ^ "Endowments to the Temple". Archaeological Survey of India.
  39. ^ The Dancing Girl: A History of Early India by Balaji Sadasivan p.133
  40. ^ A Comprehensive History of Medieval India, by Farooqui Salma Ahmed, Salma Ahmed Farooqui p.25
  41. ^ Power and Plenty: Trade, War, and the World Economy in the Second Millennium by Ronald Findlay, Kevin H. O'Rourke p.67
  42. ^ History Without Borders: The Making of an Asian World Region, 1000-1800 by Geoffrey C. Gunn p.43
  43. ^ Sen (2009), p. 91
  44. ^ Buddhism, Diplomacy, and Trade: The Realignment of Sino-Indian Relations by Tansen Sen p.226
  45. ^ Dehejia (1990), p. xiv
  46. ^ Majumdar (1987), p. 407
  47. ^ Sastri (2002), p. 158
  48. ^ Ancient India: Collected Essays on the Literary and Political History of Southern India by Sakkottai Krishnaswami Aiyangar p.233
  49. ^ ndia: The Most Dangerous Decades by Selig S. Harrison p.31
  50. ^ Sastri (2002), p. 184
  51. ^ a b Mukund (2012), p. xlii
  52. ^ a b Chopra, Ravindran & Subrahmanian (2003), pp. 107–109
  53. ^ Sastri (2002), p. 178
  54. John Miksic
    , Brian Farell, Chiang Ming Shun p.16
  55. ^ South India by Stuart Butler, Jealous p.38
  56. ^ Asia: A Concise History by Arthur Cotterell p.190
  57. ^ Paine (2014), p. 281
  58. ^ History of Asia by B.V. Rao p.211
  59. ^ Majumdar (1987), p. 405
  60. ^ Chopra, Ravindran & Subrahmanian (2003), p. 120
  61. ^ Majumdar (1987), p. 408
  62. ^ Tripathi (1967), p. 471
  63. ^ South Indian Inscriptions, Vol. 12
  64. ^ Chopra, Ravindran & Subrahmanian (2003), pp. 128–129
  65. ^ Rajeshwari Ghose (1996). The Tyagaraja Cult in Tamilnadu: A Study in Conflict and Accommodation. Motilal Banarsidass Publishers Private Limited. pp. 323–324.
  66. ^ Sastri (2002), pp. 195–196
  67. ^ Tripathi (1967), p. 472
  68. ^ Proceedings, American Philosophical Society (1978), vol. 122, No. 6, p 414
  69. ^ Sastri (1984), p. 23
  70. ^ Nagasamy (1981)
  71. ^ Sastri (2002), p. 107
  72. ^ Chopra, Ravindran & Subrahmanian (2003), p. 106
  73. ^ Mitter (2001), p. 2
  74. ^ Sastri (2002), p. 418
  75. ^ Thapar (1995), p. 403Quote: "It was, however, in bronze sculptures that the Chola craftsmen excelled, producing images rivalling the best anywhere."
  76. ^ Kulke & Rothermund (2001), p. 159
  77. ^ Sastri (1984), p. 789
  78. ^ Kulke & Rothermund (2001), pp. 159–160
  79. ^ A History of Early Southeast Asia: Maritime Trade and Societal Development by Kenneth R. Hall
  80. ^ Aryatarangini, the Saga of the Indo-Aryans, by A. Kalyanaraman p.158
  81. ^ India and Malaya Through the Ages: by S. Durai Raja Singam
  82. ^ Sastri (1984), pp. 663–664
  83. ^ Sastri (2002), p. 333
  84. ^ Sastri (2002), p. 339
  85. ^ Chopra, Ravindran & Subrahmanian (2003), p. 188
  86. ^ Sastri (2002), pp. 339–340
  87. ^ Ismail (1988), p. 1195
  88. ^ Ancient India: Collected Essays on the Literary and Political History of southern India by Sakkottai Krishnaswami Aiyangar p.127
  89. ^ The Princeton Encyclopedia of Poetry and Poetics by Roland Greene, Stephen Cushman, Clare Cavanagh, Jahan Ramazani, Paul F. Rouzer, Harris Feinsod, David Marno, Alexandra Slessarev p.1410
  90. ^ Singh (2008), p. 27
  91. ^ Portraits of a Nation: History of Ancient India, by Kamlesh Kapur p.617
  92. ^ Concise Encyclopaedia Of India by Kulwant Rai Gupta, Amita Gupta p.288
  93. ^ Chopra, Ravindran & Subrahmanian (2003), p. 116
  94. ^ Sastri (2002), pp. 20, 340–341
  95. ^ Sastri (2002), pp. 184, 340
  96. ^ Chopra, Ravindran & Subrahmanian (2003), p. 20
  97. ^ Spuler (1975), p. 194
  98. ^ www.wisdomlib.org (23 June 2018). "The Telugu Cholas of Konidena (A.D. 1050-1300) [Part 1]". www.wisdomlib.org. Retrieved 7 January 2019.
  99. ^ Sastri (2002), pp. 342–343
  100. ^ Chopra, Ravindran & Subrahmanian (2003), p. 115
  101. ^ Sastri (1984), p. 681
  102. ^ Das (1995), p. 108
  103. ^ "Versatile writer and patriot". The Hindu. Archived from the original on 23 December 2008. Retrieved 29 May 2008.
  104. ^ Das (1995), pp. 108–109
  105. ^ "English translation of Ponniyin Selvan". The Hindu. Archived from the original on 24 December 2008. Retrieved 29 May 2008.
  106. ^ "Lines that Speak". The Hindu. Archived from the original on 23 December 2008. Retrieved 29 May 2008.
  107. ^ Das (1995), p. 109
  108. ^ Encyclopaedia of Indian Literature, vol. 1, pp 631–632
  109. ^ "Book review of Udaiyar". The Hindu. Chennai, India. 22 February 2005. Archived from the original on 1 February 2009. Retrieved 30 May 2008.

General sources

External links

Wikimedia Commons has media related to Chola dynasty.