Christian theology
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Christian theology is the
- help them better understand Christian tenets[2]
- make comparisons between Christianity and other traditions[3]
- defend Christianity against objections and criticism
- facilitate reforms in the Christian church[4]
- assist in the propagation of Christianity[5]
- draw on the resources of the Christian tradition to address some present situation or perceived need[6]
- education in Christian philosophy, especially in Neoplatonic philosophy[7][8]
Christian theology has permeated much of non-ecclesiastical
Theological spectrum
Christian traditions
Christian theology varies significantly across the main branches of Christian tradition: Catholic, Orthodox and Protestant. Each of those traditions has its own unique approaches to seminaries and ministerial formation.
Systematic theology
- God (theology proper)
- The attributes of God
- The Trinity as espoused by Trinitarian Christians
- Revelation
- Biblical hermeneutics – the interpretation of Biblical texts
- The creation
- Divine providence
- Theodicy – accounting for a benign God's tolerance of evil
- Philosophy
- Hamartiology – the study of sin
- Christology – the study of the nature and person of Christ
- Pneumatology – the study of the Holy Spirit
- Soteriology – the study of salvation
- Ecclesiology – the study of the Christian church
- Missiology – the study of the Christian message and of missions
- Spirituality and mysticism
- Sacramental theology
- Eschatology – the ultimate destiny of humankind
- Moral theology
- Christian anthropology
- The afterlife
Prolegomena: Scripture as a primary basis of Christian theology
Biblical revelation
Thomas Aquinas (1225-1274) first described two types of revelation in Christianity: general revelation and special revelation.[citation needed]
- General revelation occurs through observation of the created order. Such observations can logically lead to important conclusions, such as the existence of God and some of God's attributes. General revelation is also an element of Christian apologetics.[citation needed]
- Certain specifics, such as the Trinity and the Incarnation, as revealed in the teachings of the Scriptures, can not otherwise be deduced except by special revelation.
Biblical inspiration
The Bible contains many passages in which the authors claim divine inspiration for their message or report the effects of such inspiration on others. Besides the direct accounts of written revelation (such as Moses receiving the Ten Commandments inscribed on tablets of stone), the Prophets of the Old Testament frequently claimed that their message was of divine origin by prefacing the revelation using the following phrase: "Thus says the LORD" (for example, 1 Kgs 12:22–24;1 Chr 17:3–4; Jer 35:13; Ezek 2:4; Zech 7:9; etc.). The Second Epistle of Peter claims that "no prophecy of Scripture ... was ever produced by the will of man, but men spoke from God as they were carried along by the Holy Spirit"[11] The Second Epistle of Peter also implies that Paul's writings are inspired (2 Pet 3:16).
Many[quantify] Christians cite a verse in Paul's letter to Timothy, 2 Timothy 3:16–17, as evidence that "all scripture is given by inspiration of God, and is profitable ..." Here St. Paul is referring to the Old Testament, since the scriptures have been known by Timothy from "infancy" (verse 15). Others offer an alternative reading for the passage; for example, theologian C. H. Dodd suggests that it "is probably to be rendered" as: "Every inspired scripture is also useful..."[12] A similar translation appears in the New English Bible, in the Revised English Bible, and (as a footnoted alternative) in the New Revised Standard Version. The Latin Vulgate can be so read.[13] Yet others defend the "traditional" interpretation; Daniel B. Wallace calls the alternative "probably not the best translation."[14]
Some modern English versions of the Bible renders theopneustos with "God-breathed" (
Biblical authority
Christianity generally regards the agreed collections of books known as the Bible as authoritative and as written by human authors under the inspiration of the Holy Spirit. Some Christians believe that the Bible is inerrant (totally without error and free from contradiction, including the historical and scientific parts)[16] or infallible (inerrant on issues of faith and practice but not necessarily on matters of history or science).[17][need quotation to verify][18][19][20][21]
Some Christians infer that the Bible cannot both refer to itself as being divinely inspired and also be errant or fallible. For if the Bible were divinely inspired, then the source of inspiration being divine, would not be subject to fallibility or error in that which is produced. For them, the doctrines of the divine inspiration, infallibility, and inerrancy, are inseparably tied together. The idea of biblical
Biblical canon
The content of the Protestant Old Testament is the same as the Hebrew Bible canon, with changes in the division and order of books, but the Catholic Old Testament contains additional texts, known as the deuterocanonical books. Protestants recognize 39 books in their Old Testament canon, while Roman Catholic and Eastern Christians recognize 46 books as canonical.[citation needed] Both Catholics and Protestants use the same 27-book New Testament canon.
Early Christians used the
During the 16th-century
Theology proper: God
In
Attributes of God
Classification
Many
Enumeration
Some attributes ascribed to God in Christian theology[26] are:
- NIV). This is often related to God's self-existence and his self-sufficiency.
- Eternity—That God exists beyond the temporal realm.
- Graciousness—That God extends His favor and gifts to human beings unconditionally as well as conditionally.
- Holiness—That God is separate from sin and incorruptible. Noting the refrain of "Holy, holy, holy" in Isaiah 6:3 and Revelation4:8,
- Immanence—That although God is transcendent and holy, He is also accessible and can be dynamically experienced.
- Immutability—That God's essential nature is unchangeable.
- Impassibility—That God does not experience emotion or suffering (a more controversial doctrine, disputed especially by open theism).
- Impeccability—That God is incapable of error (sin).
- Incorporeality—That God is without physical composition. A related concept is the spirituality of God, which is derived from Jesus' statement in John 4:24, "God is spirit."
- 1 John4:16 says "God is love."
- mission is not primarily an activity of the church, but an attribute of God."[28]
- Omnibenevolence—That God is omnibenevolent. Omnibenevolence of God refers to him being "all good".
- Omnipotence—That God is supremely or all-powerful.
- Omnipresence—That God is the supreme being, existing everywhere and at all times; the all-perceiving or all-conceiving foundation of reality.
- Omniscience—That God is supremely or all-knowing.
- Oneness—That God is without peer, also that every divine attribute is instantiated in its entirety (the qualitative infinity of God). See also Monotheism and Divine simplicity.
- Providence—That God watches over His creation with interest and dedication. While the Providence of God usually refers to his activity in the world, it also implies his care for the universe, and is thus an attribute. A distinction is usually made between "general providence" which refers to God's continuous upholding the existence and natural order of the universe, and "special providence" which refers to God's extraordinary intervention in the life of people.[29] See also Sovereignty.
- Righteousness—That God is the greatest or only measure of human conduct. The righteousness of God may refer to his holiness, to his justice, or to his saving activity through Christ.
- Transcendence—That God exists beyond the natural realm of physical laws and thus is not bound by them;[30] He is also wholly Other and incomprehensible apart from general or special self-revelation.
- Triune—The Christian God is understood (by trinitarian Christians) to be a "threeness" of Father, Son, and Holy Spirit that is fully consistent with His "oneness"; a single infinite being who is both within and beyond nature. Because the persons of the Trinity represent a personal relation even on the level of God to Himself, He is personal both in His relation toward us and in His relation toward Himself.
- Veracity—That God is the Truth all human beings strive for; He is also impeccably honest. Titus1:2 refers to "God, who does not lie."
- Wisdom—That God fully comprehends human nature and the world, and will see His will accomplished in heaven and on earth. Romans 16:27 speaks about the "only wise God".
Monotheism
Some Christians believe that the God worshiped by the Hebrew people of the pre-Christian era had always revealed himself as he did through Jesus; but that this was never obvious until Jesus was born (see John 1). Also, though the Angel of the Lord spoke to the Patriarchs, revealing God to them, some believe it has always been only through the Spirit of God granting them understanding, that men have been able to perceive later that God himself had visited them.
This belief gradually developed into the modern formulation of the
Most Christian churches teach the Trinity, as opposed to Unitarian monotheistic beliefs. Historically, most Christian churches have taught that the nature of God is a mystery, something that must be revealed by special revelation rather than deduced through general revelation.
Christian orthodox traditions (Catholic, Eastern Orthodox, and Protestant) follow this idea, which was codified in 381 and reached its full development through the work of the
Some critics contend that because of the adoption of a tripartite conception of deity, Christianity is a form of tritheism or polytheism. This concept dates from Arian teachings which claimed that Jesus, having appeared later in the Bible than his Father, had to be a secondary, lesser, and therefore distinct god. For Jews and Muslims, the idea of God as a trinity is heretical– it is considered akin to polytheism. Christians overwhelmingly assert that monotheism is central to the Christian faith, as the very Nicene Creed (among others) which gives the orthodox Christian definition of the Trinity does begin with: "I believe in one God".
In the 3rd century,
In
Trinity
For most Christians, beliefs about God are enshrined in the doctrine of
The Christian doctrine of the Trinity teaches the unity of
Trinitarianism, belief in the Trinity, is a mark of
Most, if not all, Christians believe that God is spirit,[38] an uncreated, omnipotent, and eternal being, the creator and sustainer of all things, who works the redemption of the world through his Son, Jesus Christ. With this background, belief in the divinity of Christ and the Holy Spirit is expressed as the doctrine of the Trinity,[39] which describes the single divine ousia (substance) existing as three distinct and inseparable hypostases (persons): the Father, the Son (Jesus Christ the Logos), and the Holy Spirit.[40]
The Trinitarian doctrine is considered by most Christians to be a core tenet of their faith.
The New Testament does not have the term "Trinity" and nowhere discusses the Trinity as such. Some emphasize, however, that the New Testament does repeatedly speak of the Father, the Son, and the Holy Spirit to "compel a trinitarian understanding of God."[41] The doctrine developed from the biblical language used in New Testament passages such as the baptismal formula in Matthew 28:19 and by the end of the 4th century it was widely held in its present form.
God the Father
In many
In Christianity, God the Father's relationship with humanity is as a father to children—in a previously unheard-of sense—and not just as the creator and nurturer of creation, and the provider for his children, his people. Thus, humans, in general, are sometimes called children of God. To Christians, God the Father's relationship with humanity is that of Creator and created beings, and in that respect he is the father of all. The New Testament says, in this sense, that the very idea of family, wherever it appears, derives its name from God the Father,[45] and thus God himself is the model of the family.
However, there is a deeper "legal" sense in which Christians believe that they are made participants in the special relationship of Father and Son, through Jesus Christ as his spiritual bride. Christians call themselves adopted children of God.[46]
In the New Testament, God the Father has a special role in his relationship with the person of the Son, where Jesus is believed to be his Son and his heir.[47] According to the Nicene Creed, the Son (Jesus Christ) is "eternally begotten of the Father", indicating that their divine Father-Son relationship is not tied to an event within time or human history. See Christology. The Bible refers to Christ, called "The Word" as present at the beginning of God's creation.,[48] not a creation himself, but equal in the personhood of the Trinity.
In
Christology and Christ
Christology is the field of study within Christian theology which is primarily concerned with the nature, person, and works of
.Primary considerations include the
Teachings about Jesus and testimonies about what he accomplished during his three-year public ministry are found throughout the
Christ
Christ is the English term for the
Trinitarian ecumenical councils
The Christological controversies came to a head over the persons of the
The decisions made at
Nicaea insisted that Jesus was fully divine and also human. What it did not do was make clear how one person could be both divine and human, and how the divine and human were related within that one person. This led to the Christological controversies of the 4th and 5th centuries of the Christian era.
The
Attributes of Christ
God as Son
According to the Bible, the second Person of the Trinity, because of his eternal relation to the first Person (God as Father), is the Son of God. He is considered (by Trinitarians) to be coequal with the Father and Holy Spirit. He is all God and all human: the Son of God as to his divine nature, while as to his human nature he is from the lineage of David.[53][54] The core of Jesus's self-interpretation was his "filial consciousness", his relationship to God as child to parent in some unique sense[24] (see Filioque controversy). His mission on earth proved to be that of enabling people to know God as their Father, which Christians believe is the essence of eternal life.[55]
God the Son is the second person of the Trinity in Christian theology. The doctrine of the Trinity identifies Jesus of Nazareth as God the Son, united in essence but distinct in person with regard to God the Father and God the Holy Spirit (the first and third persons of the Trinity). God the Son is co-eternal with God the Father (and the Holy Spirit), both before Creation and after the End (see Eschatology). So Jesus was always "God the Son", though not revealed as such until he also became the "Son of God" through incarnation. "Son of God" draws attention to his humanity, whereas "God the Son" refers more generally to his divinity, including his pre-incarnate existence. So, in Christian theology, Jesus was always God the Son,[56] though not revealed as such until he also became the Son of God through incarnation.
The exact phrase "God the Son" is not in the New Testament. Later theological use of this expression reflects what came to be standard interpretation of New Testament references, understood to imply Jesus's divinity, but the distinction of his person from that of the one God he called his Father. As such, the title is associated more with the development of the doctrine of the Trinity than with the Christological debates. There are over 40 places in the New Testament where Jesus is given the title "the Son of God", but scholars don't consider this to be an equivalent expression. "God the Son" is rejected by anti-trinitarians, who view this reversal of the most common term for Christ as a doctrinal perversion and as tending towards tritheism.
Matthew cites Jesus as saying, "Blessed are the peacemakers, for they will be called sons of God (5:9)." The gospels go on to document a great deal of controversy over Jesus being the Son of God, in a unique way. The book of the Acts of the Apostles and the letters of the New Testament, however, record the early teaching of the first Christians– those who believed Jesus to be both the Son of God, the Messiah, a man appointed by God, as well as God himself. This is evident in many places, however, the early part of the book of Hebrews addresses the issue in a deliberate, sustained argument, citing the scriptures of the Hebrew Bible as authorities. For example, the author quotes Psalm 45:6 as addressed by the God of Israel to Jesus.
- Hebrews 1:8. About the Son he says, "Your throne, O God, will last for ever and ever."
The author of Hebrews' description of Jesus as the exact representation of the divine Father has parallels in a passage in Colossians.
- Colossians 2:9–10. "in Christ all the fullness of the Deity lives in bodily form"
John's gospel quotes Jesus at length regarding his relationship with his heavenly Father. It also contains two famous attributions of divinity to Jesus.
- Christ the Logos]
- John 20:28. "Thomas said to him, 'My Lord and my God!'"
The most direct references to Jesus as God are found in various letters.
- Romans 9:5. "Christ, who is God over all"
- Titus 2:13. "our great God and Savior, Jesus Christ"
- 2 Peter 1:1. "our God and Savior Jesus Christ"
The biblical basis for later trinitarian statements in creeds is the early baptism formula found in Matthew 28.
- Matthew 28:19. Go and make disciples of all nations, baptizing them in the name [note the singular] of the Father and of the Son and of the Holy Spirit. See also Great Commission.
Person of Christ
- Only divine?
The Council of Nicaea rejected theologies that entirely ruled out any humanity in Christ, affirming in the Nicene Creed the doctrine of the Incarnation as a part of the doctrine of the Trinity. That is, that the second person of the Trinity became incarnate in the person Jesus and was fully human.
- Only human?
The early centuries of Christian history also had groups at the other end of the spectrum, arguing that Jesus was an ordinary mortal. The
Some of these views could be described as
- How can he be both?
-
- What sort of divinity?
Arianism was condemned by the Council of Nicea, but remained popular in the northern and western provinces of the empire, and continued to be the majority view of western Europe well into the 6th century. Indeed, even the Christian legend of Constantine's death-bed baptism involves a bishop who, in recorded history, was an Arian.
In the modern era, a number of denominations have rejected the Nicene doctrine of the Trinity, including the Christadelphians and the Jehovah's Witnesses.[58]
- What sort of amalgamation?
The Christological debates following the Council of Nicaea sought to make sense of the interplay of the human and divine in the person of Christ while upholding the doctrine of the Trinity.
Subsequently,
Various forms of
As theologians continued to search for a compromise between the Chalcedonian definition and the
Incarnation
The Incarnation is the belief in
In the Incarnation, as traditionally defined, the divine nature of the Son was joined but not mixed with human nature[60] in one divine Person, Jesus Christ, who was both "truly God and truly man". The Incarnation is commemorated and celebrated each year at Christmas, and also reference can be made to the Feast of the Annunciation; "different aspects of the mystery of the Incarnation" are celebrated at Christmas and the Annunciation.[61]
This is central to the traditional faith held by most Christians. Alternative views on the subject (See
In recent decades, an alternative doctrine known as "
- Description and development of the traditional doctrine
In the
Eventually, the Christian Church accepted the teaching of St. Athanasius and his allies, that Christ was the incarnation of the eternal second person of the
The most widely accepted the early Christian Church made definitions of the Incarnation and the nature of Jesus at the
- Fortuitous and Necessary Incarnation
The link between the Incarnation and the
Moltmann favours "fortuitous" incarnation primarily because he feels that to speak of an incarnation of "necessity" is to do an injustice to the life of Christ. Moltmann's work, alongside other systematic theologians, opens up avenues of liberation Christology.
Hypostatic union
In short, this doctrine states that two natures, one human and one divine, are united in the one person of Christ. The Council further taught that each of these natures, the human and the divine, was distinct and complete. This view is sometimes called
Hypostatic union (from the Greek for substance) is a technical term in Christian theology employed in mainstream Christology to describe the union of two natures, humanity and divinity, in Jesus Christ. A brief definition of the doctrine of two natures can be given as: "Jesus Christ, who is identical with the Son, is one person and one hypostasis in two natures: a human and a divine."[63]
The
The First Council of Nicaea declared that the Father and the Son are of the same substance and are co-eternal. This belief was expressed in the Nicene Creed.
Apollinaris of Laodicea was the first to use the term hypostasis in trying to understand the Incarnation.[64] Apollinaris described the union of the divine and human in Christ as being of a single nature and having a single essence– a single hypostasis.
The Nestorian
The
Thus, the Council declared that in Christ there are two natures; each retaining its own properties, and together united in one subsistence and in one single person.[66]
As the precise nature of this union is held to defy finite human comprehension, the hypostatic union is also referred to by the alternative term "mystical union."
The
In recent times, leaders from the
Other Christological concerns
- The sinlessness of Christ
Although Christian orthodoxy holds that Jesus was fully human, the Epistle to the Hebrews, for example, states that Christ was 'holy and without evil' (7:26). The question concerning the sinlessness of Jesus Christ focuses on this seeming paradox. Does being fully human require that one participate in the "fall" of Adam, or could Jesus exist in an "unfallen" status as Adam and Eve did before the "fall", according to Genesis 2–3?
- Kinds of sinlessness
Evangelical writer Donald Macleod suggests that the sinless nature of Jesus Christ involves two elements. "First, Christ was free of actual sin."[68] Studying the gospels there is no reference to Jesus praying for the forgiveness of sin, nor confessing sin. The assertion is that Jesus did not commit sin, nor could he be proven guilty of sin; he had no vices. In fact, he is quoted as asking, "Can any of you prove me guilty of sin?" in John 8:46. "Secondly, he was free from inherent sin ("original sin" or "ancestral sin")."[68]
- Temptation of Christ
The temptation of Christ shown in the gospels affirms that he was tempted. Indeed, the temptations were genuine and of a greater intensity than normally experienced by human beings.[69] He experienced all the frail weaknesses of humanity. Jesus was tempted through hunger and thirst, pain and the love of his friends. Thus, the human weaknesses could engender temptation.[70] Nevertheless, MacLeod notes that "one crucial respect in which Christ was not like us is that he was not tempted by anything within himself."[70]
The temptations Christ faced focused upon his person and identity as the incarnate Son of God. MacLeod writes, "Christ could be tempted through his sonship." The temptation in the wilderness and again in Gethsemane exemplifies this arena of temptation. Regarding the temptation of performing a sign that would affirm his sonship by throwing himself from the pinnacle of the temple, MacLeod observes, "The sign was for himself: a temptation to seek reassurance, as if to say, 'the real question is my own sonship. I must forget all else and all others and all further service until that is clear.'"[71] MacLeod places this struggle in the context of the incarnation, "...he has become a man and must accept not only the appearance but the reality."[71]
- Communication of attributes
The communion of attributes (Communicatio idiomatum) of Christ's divine and human natures is understood according to Chalcedonian theology to mean that they exist together with neither overriding the other. That is, both are preserved and coexist in one person. Christ had all the properties of God and humanity. God did not stop being God and become man. Christ was not half-God and half-human. The two natures did not mix into a new third kind of nature. Although independent, they acted in complete accord; when one nature acted, so did the other. The natures did not commingle, merge, infuse each other, or replace each other. One was not converted into the other. They remained distinct (yet acted with one accord).
- Virgin Birth
The Gospel according to Matthew and Gospel according to Luke suggest a virgin birth of Jesus Christ. Some now disregard or even argue against this "doctrine" to which most denominations of Christianity ascribe. This section looks at the Christological issues surrounding belief or disbelief in the virgin birth.
A non-virgin birth would seem to require some form of adoptionism. This is because a human conception and birth would seem to yield a fully human Jesus, with some other mechanism required to make Jesus divine as well.
A non-virgin birth would seem to support the full humanity of Jesus. William Barclay: states, "The supreme problem of the virgin birth is that it does quite undeniably differentiate Jesus from all men; it does leave us with an incomplete incarnation."[72]
Barth speaks of the virgin birth as the divine sign "which accompanies and indicates the mystery of the incarnation of the Son."[73]
Donald MacLeod[74] gives several Christological implications of a virgin birth:
- Highlights salvation as a supernatural act of God rather than an act of human initiative.
- Avoids adoptionism (which is virtually required if a normal birth).
- Reinforces the sinlessness of Christ, especially as it relates to Christ being outside the sin of Adam (original sin).
- Relationship of Persons
The discussion of whether the three distinct persons in the Godhead of the Trinity were of greater, equal, or lesser by comparison was also, like many other areas of early Christology, a subject of debate. In
Approaches to Christology
Theologians like
- Cosmological approaches
Christologies from above start with the Logos, the second Person of the Trinity, establish his eternality, his agency in creation, and his economic Sonship. Jesus's unity with God is established by the Incarnation as the divine Logos assumes a human nature. This approach was common in the early church—e.g., St. Paul and St. John in the Gospels. The attribution of full humanity to Jesus is resolved by stating that the two natures mutually share their properties (a concept termed communicatio idiomatum).[78]
- Anthropological approaches
Christologies from below start with the human being Jesus as the representative of the new humanity, not with the pre-existent Logos. Jesus lives an exemplary life, one to which we aspire in religious experience. This form of Christology lends itself to mysticism, and some of its roots go back to emergence of Christ mysticism in the 6th century East, but in the West it flourished between the 11th and 14th centuries. A recent theologian Wolfhart Pannenberg contends that the resurrected Jesus is the "eschatological fulfillment of human destiny to live in nearness to God."[79]
- Political approaches
The Christian faith is inherently political because allegiance to Jesus as risen Lord relativises all earthly rule and authority. Jesus is called "Lord" over 230 times in Paul's epistles alone, and is thus the principal confession of faith in the Pauline epistles. Further, N.T. Wright argues that this Pauline confession is the core of the gospel of salvation. The Achilles' heel of this approach is the loss of eschatological tension between this present age and the future divine rule that is yet to come. This can happen when the state co-opts Christ's authority as was often the case in imperial Christology. Modern political Christologies seek to overcome imperialist ideologies.[80]
Works of Christ
- Resurrection of Jesus
The resurrection is perhaps the most controversial aspect of the life of Jesus Christ. Christianity hinges on this point of Christology, both as a response to a particular history and as a confessional response.[81] Some Christians claim that because he was resurrected, the future of the world was forever altered. Most Christians believe that Jesus's resurrection brings reconciliation with God (II Corinthians 5:18), the destruction of death (I Corinthians 15:26), and forgiveness of sins for followers of Jesus Christ.
After Jesus had died, and was buried, the New Testament states that he appeared to others in bodily form. Some skeptics say his appearances were only perceived by his followers in mind or spirit. The gospels state that the disciples believed they witnessed Jesus's resurrected body and that led to the beginning of the faith. They had previously hid in fear of persecution after Jesus's death. After seeing Jesus they boldly proclaimed the message of Jesus Christ despite tremendous risk. They obeyed Jesus's mandate to be reconciled to God through repentance (Luke 24:47), baptism, and obedience (Matthew 28:19–20).
- Offices as Prophet, Priest, and King
Jesus Christ, the Mediator of humankind, fulfills the
Pneumatology: Holy Spirit
Pneumatology is the study of the
Within mainstream (Trinitarian) Christianity the Holy Spirit is one of the three persons of the
The English word comes from two Greek words: πνευμα (pneuma, spirit) and λογος (logos, teaching about). Pneumatology would normally include study of the person of the Holy Spirit, and the works of the Holy Spirit. This latter category would normally include Christian teachings on
Christians believe that the Holy Spirit leads people to faith in Jesus and gives them the ability to live a
After his resurrection, Christ told his disciples that they would be "baptized with the Holy Spirit" and would receive power from this event,[92] a promise that was fulfilled in the events recounted in the second chapter of Acts. On the first Pentecost, Jesus's disciples were gathered in Jerusalem when a mighty wind was heard and tongues of fire appeared over their heads. A multilingual crowd heard the disciples speaking, and each of them heard them speaking in his or her native language.
The Holy Spirit is believed to perform specific divine functions in the life of the Christian or the church. These include:
- Conviction of sin. The Holy Spirit acts to convince the unredeemed person both of the sinfulness of their actions, and of their moral standing as sinners before God.[93]
- Bringing to conversion. The action of the Holy Spirit is seen as an essential part of the bringing of the person to the Christian faith.[94] The new believer is "born again of the Spirit".[95]
- Enabling the Christian life. The Holy Spirit is believed to dwell in the individual believers and enable them to live a righteous and faithful life.[94]
- As a comforter or Paraclete, one who intercedes, or supports or acts as an advocate, particularly in times of trial.
- Inspiration and interpretation of scripture. The Holy Spirit both inspires the writing of the scriptures and interprets them to the Christian and church.[96]
The Holy Spirit is also believed to be active especially in the life of
- Cause of his birth. According to the gospel accounts of the birth of Jesus, the "beginning of His incarnate existence", was due to the Holy Spirit.[97][98]
- Anointing him at his baptism.[94]
- Empowerment of his ministry. The ministry of Jesus following his baptism (in which the Holy Spirit is described in the gospels as "descending on Him like a dove") is conducted in the power and at the direction of the Holy Spirit.[94]
- Fruit of the Spirit
Christians believe the "
- Gifts of the Spirit
Christians believe that the Holy Spirit gives 'gifts' to Christians. These gifts consist of specific abilities granted to the individual Christian.
It is over the nature and occurrence of these gifts, particularly the supernatural gifts (sometimes called charismatic gifts), that the greatest disagreement between Christians with regard to the Holy Spirit exists.
One view is that the supernatural gifts were a special dispensation for the apostolic ages, bestowed because of the unique conditions of the church at that time, and are extremely rarely bestowed in the present time.
Believers in the relevance of the supernatural gifts sometimes speak of a Baptism of the Holy Spirit or Filling of the Holy Spirit which the Christian needs to experience in order to receive those gifts. Many churches hold that the Baptism of the Holy Spirit is identical with conversion, and that all Christians are by definition baptized in the Holy Spirit.[102]
Cosmology: Things created
And God said, Let there be light: and there was light.And God saw the light, that it was good: and God divided the light from the darkness.And God called the light Day, and the darkness he called Night. And the evening and the morning were the first day. Genesis 1: 3–5
The various
World
Within this broad understanding, however, there are a number of views regarding exactly how this doctrine ought to be interpreted.
- Some Christians, particularly Young and Old Earth creationists, interpret Genesis as an accurate and literal account of creation.
- Others may understand these to be, instead, spiritual insights more vaguely defined.
It is a tenet of Christian faith (Catholic, Eastern Orthodox, and Protestant) that God is the
- "In the beginning was the Word...and the Word was God...all things were made through him, and without him was not anything made that was made."
The New Testament claims that God created everything by the eternal Word, Jesus Christ his beloved Son. In him
- "all things were created, in heaven and on earth.. . all things were created through him and for him. He is before all things, and in him all things hold together."[104]
Anthropology: Humanity
Christian anthropology is the study of
One aspect studies the innate nature or constitution of the human, known as the nature of mankind. It is concerned with the relationship between notions such as
Components
- Soul
The semantic domain of
The New Testament follows the terminology of the Septuagint, and thus uses the word psyche with the Hebrew semantic domain and not the Greek,[112] that is an invisible power (or ever more, for Platonists, immortal and immaterial) that gives life and motion to the body and is responsible for its attributes.
In
- Spirit
The spirit (Hebrew ruach, Greek πνεῦμα, pneuma, which can also mean "breath") is likewise an immaterial component. It is often used interchangeably with "soul", psyche, although trichotomists believe that the spirit is distinct from the soul.
- "When Paul speaks of the pneuma of man he does not mean some higher principle within him or some special intellectual or spiritual faculty of his, but simply his self, and the only questions is whether the self is regarded in some particular aspect when it is called pneuma. In the first place, it apparently is regarded in the same way as when it is called psyche– viz. as the self that lives in man's attitude, in the orientation of his will."[114]
- Body, Flesh
The body (Greek
Flesh (Greek
Origin of humanity
The Bible teaches in the book of Genesis the humans were created by God. Some Christians believe that this must have involved a miraculous creative act, while others are comfortable with the idea that God worked through the evolutionary process.
The book of Genesis also teaches that human beings, male and female, were created in the image of God. The exact meaning of this has been debated throughout church history.
Death and afterlife
Christian anthropology has implications for beliefs about
- "The bodies of men, after death, return to dust, and see corruption: but their souls, which neither die nor sleep, having an immortal subsistence, immediately return to God who gave them"
- Intermediate state
The question then arises: where exactly does the disembodied soul "go" at death? Theologians refer to this subject as the
Fully developed Christian theology goes a step further; on the basis of such texts as Luke 23:43 and Philippians 1:23, it has traditionally been taught that the souls of the dead are received immediately either into heaven or hell, where they will experience a foretaste of their eternal destiny prior to the resurrection. (
- "the souls of the righteous, being then made perfect in holiness, are received into the highest heavens, where they behold the face of God, in light and glory, waiting for the full redemption of their bodies. And the souls of the wicked are cast into hell, where they remain in torments and utter darkness, reserved to the judgment of the great day." (Westminster Confession)
Some Christian groups which stress a monistic anthropology deny that the soul can exist consciously apart from the body. For example, the
- Final state
In Christian belief, both the righteous and the unrighteous will be resurrected at the
Mariology
The study of the
Angelology
Most descriptions of angels in the Bible describe them in military terms. For example, in terms such as encampment (Gen.32:1–2), command structure (Ps.91:11–12; Matt.13:41; Rev.7:2), and combat (Jdg.5:20; Job 19:12; Rev.12:7).
Its specific hierarchy differs slightly from the
Members of the heavenly host
Cherubim are depicted as accompanying God's chariot-throne (Ps.80:1). Exodus 25:18–22 refers to two Cherub statues placed on top of the Ark of the Covenant, the two cherubim are usually interpreted as guarding the throne of God. Other guard-like duties include being posted in locations such as the gates of Eden (Gen.3:24). Cherubim were mythological winged bulls or other beasts that were part of ancient Near Eastern traditions.[116]
This angelic designation might be given to angels of various ranks. An example would be Raphael who is ranked variously as a Seraph, Cherub, and Archangel .[117] This is usually a result of conflicting schemes of hierarchies of angels.
It is not known how many angels there are but one figure given in Revelation 5:11 for the number of "many angels in a circle around the throne, as well as the living creatures and the elders" was "ten thousand times ten thousand", which would be 100 million.
Demonology: Fallen angels
In most of
Allegedly, fallen angels are those which have committed one of the seven deadly sins. Therefore, are banished from heaven and suffer in hell for all eternity. Demons from hell would punish the fallen angel by ripping out their wings as a sign of insignificance and low rank. [120]
Heaven
Heaven is the English name for a transcendental realm wherein human beings who have transcended human living live in an afterlife. in the Bible and in English, the term "heaven" may refer to the physical heavens, the sky or the seemingly endless expanse of the universe beyond, the traditional literal meaning of the term in English.
Christianity maintains that entry into Heaven awaits such time as, "When the form of this world has passed away." (*JPII) One view expressed in the Bible is that on the day Christ returns the righteous dead are resurrected first, and then those who are alive and judged righteous will be brought up to join them, to be taken to heaven. (I Thess 4:13–18)
Two related and often confused concepts of heaven in Christianity are better described as the
One popular medieval view of Heaven was that it existed as a physical place above the clouds and that God and the Angels were physically above, watching over man. Heaven as a physical place survived in the concept that it was located far out into space, and that the stars were "lights shining through from heaven".
Many of today's biblical scholars, such as
Religions that teach about heaven differ on how (and if) one gets into it, typically in the
Many religions state that those who do not go to heaven will go to a place "without the presence of God", Hell, which is eternal (see annihilationism). Some religions believe that other afterlives exist in addition to Heaven and Hell, such as Purgatory. One belief, universalism, believes that everyone will go to Heaven eventually, no matter what they have done or believed on earth. Some forms of Christianity believe Hell to be the termination of the soul.
Various saints have had visions of heaven (2 Corinthians 12:2–4). The Eastern Orthodox concept of life in heaven is described in one of the prayers for the dead: "...a place of light, a place of green pasture, a place of repose, whence all sickness, sorrow and sighing are fled away."[122]
The Church bases its belief in Heaven on some main biblical passages in the Hebrew and Christian Scriptures (Old and New Testaments) and collected church wisdom. Heaven is the Realm of the Blessed
The essential joy of heaven is called the beatific vision, which is derived from the vision of God's essence. The soul rests perfectly in God, and does not, or cannot desire anything else than God. After the Last Judgment, when the soul is reunited with its body, the body participates in the happiness of the soul. It becomes incorruptible, glorious and perfect. Any physical defects the body may have laboured under are erased. Heaven is also known as paradise in some cases. The Great Gulf separates heaven from hell.
Upon dying, each soul goes to what is called "the
The term Heaven (which differs from "The
Many evangelicals understand this future life to be divided into two distinct periods: first, the
Not only will the believers spend eternity with God, they will also spend it with each other. John's vision recorded in Revelation describes a
- Purgatory
The notion of purgatory is associated particularly with the
Hell
Hell in
Hell is generally defined as the eternal fate of unrepentant sinners after this life.[135] Hell's character is inferred from biblical teaching, which has often been understood literally.[135] Souls are said to pass into Hell by God's irrevocable judgment, either immediately after death (particular judgment) or in the general judgment.[135] Modern theologians generally describe Hell as the logical consequence of the soul using its free will to reject the will of God.[135] It is considered compatible with God's justice and mercy because God will not interfere with the soul's free choice.[135]
Only in the King James Version of the bible is the word "Hell" used to translate certain words, such as sheol (Hebrew) and both hades and Gehenna(Greek). All other translations reserve Hell only for use when Gehenna is mentioned. It is generally agreed that both sheol and hades do not typically refer to the place of eternal punishment, but to the underworld or temporary abode of the dead.[136]
Traditionally, the majority of Protestants have held that Hell will be a place of unending conscious torment, both physical and spiritual,
Another area of debate is the fate of the unevangelized (i.e. those who have never had an opportunity to hear the Christian gospel), those who die in infancy, and mentally disabled people. Some Protestants agree with Augustine that people in these categories will be damned to Hell for original sin, while others believe that God will make an exception in these cases.[137]
A "significant minority" believe in the doctrine of conditional immortality,[141] which teaches that those sent to Hell will not experience eternal conscious punishment, but instead will be extinguished or annihilated after a period of "limited conscious punishment".[142] Prominent evangelical theologians who have adopted conditionalist beliefs include John Wenham, Edward Fudge, Clark Pinnock and John Stott (although the latter has described himself as an "agnostic" on the issue of annihilationism).[137] Conditionalists typically reject the traditional concept of the immortality of the soul.
Some Protestants (such as
Theodicy: Allowance of evil
Theodicy can be said to be defense of God's goodness and omnipotence in view of the existence of evil. Specifically, Theodicy is a specific branch of theology and philosophy which attempts to reconcile belief in God with the perceived existence of evil.[143] As such, theodicy can be said to attempt to justify the behaviour of God (at least insofar as God allows evil).
Responses to the problem of evil have sometimes been classified as defenses or theodicies. However, authors disagree on the exact definitions.[144][145][146] Generally, a defense attempts to show that there is no logical incompatibility between the existence of evil and the existence of God. A defense need not argue that this is a probable or plausible explanation, only that the defense is logically possible. A defense attempts to answer the logical problem of evil.
A theodicy, on the other hand, is a more ambitious attempt to provide a plausible justification for the existence of evil. A theodicy attempts to answer the evidential problem of evil.[145] Richard Swinburne maintains that it does not make sense to assume there are greater goods, unless we know what they are, i.e., we have a successful theodicy.[147]
As an example, some authors see arguments including demons or the fall of man as not logically impossible but not very plausible considering our knowledge about the world. Thus they are seen as defenses but not good theodicies.[145] C. S. Lewis writes in his book The Problem of Pain:
We can, perhaps, conceive of a world in which God corrected the results of this abuse of free will by His creatures at every moment: so that a wooden beam became soft as grass when it was used as a weapon, and the air refused to obey me if I attempted to set up in it the sound waves that carry lies or insults. But such a world would be one in which wrong actions were impossible, and in which, therefore, freedom of the will would be void; nay, if the principle were carried out to its logical conclusion, evil thoughts would be impossible, for the cerebral matter which we use in thinking would refuse its task when we attempted to frame them.[148]
Another possible answer is that the world is corrupted due to the sin of mankind. Some answer that because of sin, the world has fallen from the grace of God, and is not perfect. Therefore, evils and imperfections persist because the world is fallen.[citation needed] William A. Dembski argues that the effects of Adam's sin recorded in the Book of Genesis were 'back-dated' by God, and hence applied to the earlier history of the universe.[149]
Evil is sometimes seen as a test or trial for humans. Irenaeus of Lyons and more recently John Hick have argued that evil and suffering are necessary for spiritual growth. This is often combined with the free will argument by arguing that such spiritual growth requires free will decisions. A problem with this is that many evils do not seem to cause any kind of spiritual growth, or even permit it, as when a child is abused from birth and becomes, seemingly inevitably, a brutal adult.
The problem of evil is often phrased in the form: Why do bad things happen to good people?.
The Book of Isaiah clearly claims that God is the source of at least some natural disasters, but Isaiah doesn't attempt to explain the motivation behind the creation of evil.[150] In contrast, the Book of Job is one of the most widely known formulations of the problem of evil in Western thought. In it, Satan challenges God regarding his servant Job, claiming that Job only serves God for the blessings and protection that he receives from him. God allows Satan to plague Job and his family in a number of ways, with the limitation that Satan may not take Job's life (but his children are killed). Job discusses this with three friends and questions God regarding his suffering which he finds to be unjust. God responds in a speech and then more than restores Job's prior health, wealth, and gives him new children.
Bart D. Ehrman argues that different parts of the Bible give different answers. One example is evil as punishment for sin or as a consequence of sin. Ehrman writes that this seems to be based on some notion of free will although this argument is never explicitly mentioned in the Bible. Another argument is that suffering ultimately achieves a greater good, possibly for persons other than the sufferer, that would not have been possible otherwise. The Book of Job offers two different answers: suffering is a test, and you will be rewarded later for passing it; another that God in his might chooses not to reveal his reasons. Ecclesiastes sees suffering as beyond human abilities to comprehend. Apocalyptic parts, including the New Testament, see suffering as due to cosmic evil forces, that God for mysterious reasons has given power over the world, but which will soon be defeated and things will be set right.[151]
Hamartiology: Sin
The Greek word in the
Hamartiology (Greek: ἁμαρτία, hamartia, "missing the mark," "sin," + -λογια, -logia, "sayings" or "discourse") is the branch of Christian theology, more specifically, systematic theology, which is the study of sin with a view to articulating a doctrine of it.
Substantial branches of hamartiological understanding subscribe to the doctrine of original sin, which was taught by the Apostle Paul in Romans 5:12–19 and popularized by Saint Augustine. He taught that all the descendants of Adam and Eve are guilty of Adam's sin without their own personal choice.[152]
In contrast,
A third branch of thinking takes an intermediate position, arguing that after the fall of Adam and Eve, humans are born impacted by sin such that they have very decided tendencies toward sinning (which by personal choice all accountable humans but Jesus soon choose to indulge).
The degree to which a Christian believes humanity is impacted by either a literal or metaphorical "fall" determines their understanding of related theological concepts like
Christian views on sin are mostly understood as legal infraction or contract violation, and so salvation tends to be viewed in legal terms, similar to Jewish thinking.
Sin
In religion, sin is the concept of acts that violate a rule of God. The term sin may also refer to the state of having committed such a violation. Commonly, the moral code of conduct is decreed by a divine entity, i.e. Divine law.
Sin is often used to mean an action that is prohibited or considered wrong; in some religions (notably some sects of Christianity), sin can refer not only to physical actions taken, but also to thoughts and internalized motivations and feelings. Colloquially, any thought, word, or act considered immoral, shameful, harmful, or alienating might be termed "sinful".
An elementary concept of "sin" regards such acts and elements of Earthly living that one cannot take with them into
Common ideas surrounding sin in various religions include:
- Punishment for sins, from other people, from God either in life or in afterlife, or from the Universe in general.
- The question of whether an act must be intentional to be sinful.
- The idea that one's conscience should produce guilt for a conscious act of sin.
- A scheme for determining the seriousness of the sin.
- Repentance from (expressing regret for and determining not to commit) sin, and atonement (repayment) for past deeds.
- The possibility of forgiveness of sins, often through communication with a deity or intermediary; in Christianity often referred to as salvation. Crime and justice are related secular concepts.
In
In Eastern Christianity, sin is viewed in terms of its effects on relationships, both among people and between people and God. Sin is seen as the refusal to follow God's plan, and the desire to be like God and thus in direct opposition to him (see the account of Adam and Eve in the Book of Genesis). To sin is to want control of one's destiny in opposition to the will of God, to do some rigid beliefs.
In the
Fall of man
The fall of man or simply the fall refers in
Some
The doctrine of
Original sin
Thus, the moment Adam and Eve ate the fruit from the tree—which God had commanded them not to do—sinful death was born; it was an act of disobedience, thinking they could become like gods, that was the sin. Since Adam was the head of the human race, he is held responsible for the evil that took place, for which reason the
Original sin, which Eastern Christians usually refer to as ancestral sin,[155] is, according to a doctrine proposed in Christian theology, humanity's state of sin resulting from the fall of man.[156] This condition has been characterized in many ways, ranging from something as insignificant as a slight deficiency, or a tendency toward sin yet without collective guilt, referred to as a "sin nature," to something as drastic as total depravity or automatic guilt by all humans through collective guilt.[157]
Those who uphold the doctrine look to the teaching of Paul the Apostle in Romans 5:12–21 and 1 Corinthians 15:22 for its scriptural base,[37] and see it as perhaps implied in Old Testament passages such as Psalm 51:5 and Psalm 58:3.
The
Augustine's formulation of original sin was popular among Protestant reformers, such as Martin Luther and John Calvin, and also, within Roman Catholicism, in the Jansenist movement, but this movement was declared heretical by the Catholic Church.[164] There are wide-ranging disagreements among Christian groups as to the exact understanding of the doctrine about a state of sinfulness or absence of holiness affecting all humans, even children, with some Christian groups denying it altogether.
The notion of original sin as interpreted by
- New Testament
The scriptural basis for the doctrine is found in two New Testament books by Paul the Apostle, Romans 5:12–21 and 1 Corinthians 15:22, in which he identifies Adam as the one man through whom death came into the world.[37] [165]
Total depravity
Total depravity (also called absolute inability and total corruption) is a theological doctrine that derives from the Augustinian concept of original sin. It is the teaching that, as a consequence of the fall of man, every person born into the world is enslaved to the service of sin and, apart from the efficacious or prevenient grace of God, is utterly unable to choose to follow God or choose to accept salvation as it is freely offered.
It is also advocated to various degrees by many Protestant confessions of faith and catechisms, including those of
Total depravity is the fallen state of man as a result of original sin. The doctrine of total depravity asserts that people are by nature not inclined or even able to love God wholly with heart, mind, and strength, but rather all are inclined by nature to serve their own will and desires and to reject the rule of God. Even religion and
Total depravity does not mean, however, that people are as evil as possible. Rather, it means that even the good which a person may intend is faulty in its premise, false in its motive, and weak in its implementation; and there is no mere refinement of natural capacities that can correct this condition. Thus, even acts of generosity and altruism are in fact egoist acts in disguise. All good, consequently, is derived from God alone, and in no way through man.[170]
Comparison among Protestants
This table summarizes three Protestant beliefs on depravity.
| Topic | Calvinism | Lutheranism | Arminianism |
|---|---|---|---|
| Depravity and human will | For Calvin, in Total Depravity[171] humanity possesses "free will,"[172] but it is in bondage to sin,[173] until it is "transformed."[174] | For Luther, in Total Depravity[175][176] humanity possesses free-will/free choice in regard to "goods and possessions," but regarding "salvation or damnation" people are in bondage either to God or Satan."[177] | For Arminius, in Depravity[178] humanity possesses freedom from necessity, but not "freedom from sin" unless enabled by "prevenient grace."[179] |
Soteriology: Salvation
Christian soteriology is the branch of Christian theology that deals with one's salvation.[180] It is derived from the Greek sōtērion (salvation) (from sōtēr savior, preserver) + English -logy.[181]
Atonement is a doctrine that describes how human beings can be reconciled to
Traditional focus
Christian soteriology traditionally focuses on how God ends the separation people have from him due to sin by reconciling them with himself. (Rom. 5:10–11). Many Christians believe they receive the forgiveness of sins (Acts 2:38), life (Rom. 8:11), and salvation (1 Thess. 5:9) bought by Jesus through his innocent suffering, death, and resurrection from the dead three days later (Matt. 28).
Christ's death, resurrection, ascension, and sending of the Holy Spirit, is called The Paschal Mystery. Christ's human birth is called the Incarnation. Either or both are considered in different versions of soteriology.
While not neglecting the Paschal Mystery, many Christians believe salvation is brought through the Incarnation itself, in which God took on human nature so that humans could partake in the divine nature (2 Peter 1.4). As
Distinct schools
Protestant teaching, originating with Martin Luther, teaches that salvation is received by grace alone and that one's sole necessary response to this grace is faith alone. Older Christian teaching, as found in Catholic and Orthodox theology, is that salvation is received by grace alone, but that one's necessary response to this grace comprises both faith and works (James 2:24, 26; Rom 2:6–7; Gal 5:6).
Catholic soteriology
Human beings exists because God wanted to share His life with them. In this sense, every human being is God's child. In a fuller sense, to come to salvation is to be reconciled to God through Christ and to be united with His divine Essence via
Comparison among Protestants
| Protestant beliefs about salvation | |||
| This table summarizes the classical views of three Protestant beliefs about salvation.[182] | |||
| Topic | Calvinism |
Lutheranism | Arminianism |
|---|---|---|---|
| Human will | Total depravity:[175] Humanity possesses "free will",[183] but it is in bondage to sin,[184] until it is "transformed".[185] | Total depravity:[175][186][187] Humanity possesses free will in regard to "goods and possessions", but is sinful by nature and unable to contribute to its own salvation.[188][189][190] | Total depravity: Humanity possesses freedom from necessity, but not "freedom from sin" unless enabled by "prevenient grace".[191] |
| Election | Unconditional election. | Unconditional election.[175][192] | Conditional election in view of foreseen faith or unbelief.[193] |
| Justification and atonement | Justification by faith alone. Various views regarding the extent of the atonement.[194]
|
Justification for all men,[195] completed at Christ's death and effective through faith alone.[196][197][198][199] | Justification made possible for all through Christ's death, but only completed upon choosing faith in Jesus.[200]
|
| Conversion | Monergistic,[201] through the means of grace, irresistible. | Monergistic,[202][203] through the means of grace, resistible.[204] | |
| Perseverance and apostasy | Perseverance of the saints: the eternally elect in Christ will certainly persevere in faith.[207] | Falling away is possible,[208] but God gives gospel assurance.[209][210] | Preservation is conditional upon continued faith in Christ; with the possibility of a final apostasy.[211] |
Ecclesiology: Church
Ecclesiology (from Greek ἐκκλησίᾱ, ekklēsiā, "congregation, church";
and -λογία,
Different ecclesiologies give shape to very different institutions. Thus, in addition to describing a broad discipline of theology, ecclesiology may be used in the specific sense of a particular church or denomination's character, self-described or otherwise. This is the sense of the word in such phrases as Roman Catholic ecclesiology, Lutheran ecclesiology, and ecumenical ecclesiology.
- Issues addressed by ecclesiology
Ecclesiology asks the questions:
- Who is the Church? Is it a visible or earthly cloud of witnesses")– do they (those on Earth and those in Heaven) constitute together the Church?
- Must one join a church? That is, what is the role of corporate worship in the spiritual lives of believers? Is it in fact necessary? Can salvation be found outside of formal membership in a given faith community, and what constitutes "membership?" (Baptism? Formal acceptance of a creed? Regular participation?)
- What is the grace? Or is the Church's authority instead dependent on and derivative of a separate and prior divine revelation external to the organization, with individual institutions being "the Church" only to the extent that they teach this message? For example, is the Biblea written part of a wider revelation entrusted to the Church as faith community, and therefore to be interpreted within that context? Or is the Bible the revelation itself, and the Church is to be defined as a group of people who claim adherence to it?
- What does the Church do? What are the Christor some other function? Is the Eucharist the defining element of the rest of the sacramental system and the Church itself, or is it secondary to the act of preaching? Is the Church to be understood as the vehicle for salvation, or the salvific presence in the world, or as a community of those already "saved?"
- How should the Church be governed? What was the mission and authority of the Apostles, and is this handed down through the sacraments today? What are the proper methods of choosing official, ordained "leaders"? Must leaders and clergy be "ordained," and is this possible only by those who have been ordained by others?
Ecclesiastical polity
Ecclesiastical polity is the operational and governance structure of a
Issues of church governance appear in the first chapters of the
During the
Episcopal polity is used in several closely related senses. Most commonly it refers to the field of church governance in the abstract, but it also can refer to the governance of a particular Christian body. In this sense it is used as a term in civil law. "Polity" is sometimes used as a shorthand for the church governance structure itself.
Though each church or denomination has its own characteristic structure, there are three general types of polity.
- Episcopal polity
Churches having episcopal polity are governed by
Bishops in this system may be subject to higher ranking bishops (variously called archbishops, metropolitans or patriarchs, depending upon the tradition; see also Bishop for further explanation of the varieties of bishops.) They also meet in councils or synods. These synods, subject to presidency by higher ranking bishops, may govern the dioceses which are represented in the council, though the synod may also be purely advisory.
Note that the presence of the office of "bishop" within a church is not proof of episcopal polity. For example, in
Also, episcopal polity is not usually a simple chain of command. Instead, some authority may be held, not only by synods and colleges of bishops, but by lay and clerical councils. Further, patterns of authority are subject to a wide variety of historical rights and honors which may cut across simple lines of authority.
Episcopal polity is the predominant pattern in
- Presbyterian polity
Many
Presbyterian polity is, of course, the characteristic governance of
Note that, in episcopal polity, a presbyter refers to a priest.
- Congregational polity
Members may be sent from the congregation to associations that are sometimes identified with the church bodies formed by
It is a principle of congregationalism that ministers do not govern congregations by themselves. They may preside over the congregation, but it is the congregation which exerts its authority in the end.
Congregational polity is sometimes called "Baptist polity", as it is the characteristic polity of
Priesthood
Church discipline
Missiology
Sacrament
A sacrament, as defined in Hexam's Concise Dictionary of Religion, is what
Throughout the Christian faith, views concerning which rites are sacramental, that is conferring
- General definitions and terms
In the majority of Western Christianity, the generally accepted definition of a sacrament is that it is an outward sign that conveys spiritual
As defined by the
The Orthodox Churches (Eastern and Oriental) typically do not limit the number of sacraments, viewing all encounters with reality in life as sacramental in some sense, and their acknowledgement of the number of sacraments at seven as an innovation of convenience not found in the
Since some post-Reformation denominations do not regard clergy as having a classically sacerdotal or priestly function, they avoid the term "sacrament," preferring the terms "sacerdotal function," "ordinance," or "tradition." This belief invests the efficacy of the ordinance in the obedience and participation of the believer and the witness of the presiding minister and the congregation. This view stems from a highly developed concept of the priesthood of all believers. In this sense, the believer himself or herself performs the sacerdotal role [citation needed].
Eucharist
- Transsubstantiation(Roman Catholicism)
- Anglican Eucharistic theology
- Sacramental Union(Lutheran)
Eucharist, also called Communion, or the Lord's Supper, and other names, is a Christian
There are different interpretations of the significance of the Eucharist, but "there is more of a consensus among Christians about the meaning of the Eucharist than would appear from the confessional debates over the sacramental presence, the effects of the Eucharist, and the proper auspices under which it may be celebrated."[217]
The phrase "the Eucharist" may refer not only to the rite but also to the consecrated
Eucharist is from Greek εὐχαριστία (eucharistia), meaning thanksgiving. The verb εὐχαριστῶ, the usual word for "to thank" in the Septuagint and the New Testament, is found in the major texts concerning the Lord's Supper, including the earliest:
For I received from the Lord what I also delivered to you, that the Lord Jesus on the night when he was betrayed took bread, and when he had given thanks, he broke it, and said, "This is my body which is for you. Do this in remembrance of me." (1 Corinthians 11:23–24)
The Lord's Supper (Κυριακὸν δεῖπνον) derives from 1 Corinthians 11:20–21.
When you come together, it is not the Lord's Supper you eat, for as you eat, each of you goes ahead without waiting for anybody else. One remains hungry, another gets drunk.
Communion is a translation; other translations are "participation", "sharing", "fellowship"[219] of the Greek κοινωνία (koinōnía) in 1 Corinthians 10:16. The King James Version has
The cup of blessing which we bless, is it not the communion of the blood of Christ? The bread which we break, is it not the communion of the body of Christ?[220]
The
In his First Epistle to the Corinthians (c. 54–55), Paul the Apostle gives the earliest recorded description of Jesus's Last Supper: "The Lord Jesus on the night when he was betrayed took bread, and when he had given thanks, he broke it, and said, 'This is my body which is for you. Do this in remembrance of me.' In the same way also the cup, after supper, saying, 'This cup is the new covenant in my blood. Do this, as often as you drink it, in remembrance of me'."[223]
The synoptic gospels, first Mark,[224] and then Matthew[225] and Luke,[226] depict Jesus as presiding over the Last Supper. References to Jesus's body and blood foreshadow his crucifixion, and he identifies them as a new covenant.[227] In the gospel of John, the account of the Last Supper has no mention of Jesus taking bread and wine and speaking of them as his body and blood; instead it recounts his humble act of washing the disciples' feet, the prophecy of the betrayal, which set in motion the events that would lead to the cross, and his long discourse in response to some questions posed by his followers, in which he went on to speak of the importance of the unity of the disciples with him and each other.[227][228]
The expression The Lord's Supper, derived from
The Didache (Greek: teaching) is an early Church order, including, among other features, instructions for baptism and the Eucharist. Most scholars date it to the early 2nd century,[230] and distinguish in it two separate Eucharistic traditions, the earlier tradition in chapter 10 and the later one preceding it in chapter 9.[231] The Eucharist is mentioned again in chapter 14.
Ignatius of Antioch, one of the Apostolic Fathers and a direct disciple of the
- Eucharistic theology
Many Christian denominations classify the Eucharist as a
Most Christians, even those who deny that there is any real change in the elements used, recognize a special presence of Christ in this rite, though they differ about exactly how, where, and when Christ is present.
The Baptism, Eucharist and Ministry document of the
Baptism
Eschatology
 |
Eschatology (derived from the Greek roots ἔσχατος "last" and λογία "discourse," "study") is the study of the end of things, whether the end of an individual life, the end of the age, or the end of the world. Broadly speaking, it is the study of the destiny of man as revealed in the Bible.
Eschatology is concerned with the
Eschatology is an ancient branch of study in Christian theology, with study of the "last things" and the
Martin Luther, John Calvin, and other 16th-century reformers wrote long tracts about the End Times, but interest in eschatology dwindled after the Reformation until the late 19th century, when it became popular in the Reformed, Pentecostal, and Evangelical sects. It was increasingly recognized as a formal division of theological study during the 20th century.
The second coming of Christ is the central event in Christian eschatology. Most Christians believe that death and suffering will continue to exist until Christ's return. Others believe that suffering will gradually be eliminated prior to his coming, and that the elimination of injustice is our part in preparing for that event. Needless to say, there are a variety of viewpoints concerning the order and significance of eschatological events.
Approaches to interpretation
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- The desecration of the templein the same year, and the growth of Christianity from a sect within Judaism to an independent religion.
- The Historicist method takes a broader historical approach and seeks parallels between Revelation and the major people and events of history, especially those which have had a direct effect on Israeland the Church.
- The Futuristmethod approaches Revelation as chiefly referring to events that have not yet come to pass but will take place at the end of this age and at the end of the world. The main focus is the return of Christ.
- The triumph of good over evil.
See also
- Biblical law in Christianity
- Eastern Orthodox – Roman Catholic theological differences
- Lists of Christian theologians
- Outline of theology
References
- ISBN 9781498223485.
- ^ See, e.g., Daniel L. Migliore, Faith Seeking Understanding: An Introduction to Christian Theology (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 2004)
- ^ See, e.g., David Burrell, Freedom and Creation in Three Traditions (Notre Dame: University of Notre Dame Press, 1994)
- ^ See for example John Shelby Spong, Why Christianity Must Change or Die (New York: Harper Collins, 2001)
- ^ See, e.g., Duncan Dormor et al. (eds), Anglicanism, the Answer to Modernity (London: Continuum, 2003)
- ^ For example, see Timothy Gorringe, Crime, Changing Society and the Churches Series (London: SPCK, 2004).
- ^ Louth, Andrew. The Origins of the Christian Mystical Tradition: From Plato to Denys. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1983.
- ISBN 978-0345384560.
- ^
Compare:
ISBN 9780195145984. Retrieved 5 February 2019.
Systematic theology is so called because it takes up questions posed not only by current urgency but also by perceived inherent connections of the faith. Thus systematic theology may raise problems that have not yet emerged in the church's life, and maintain discussions whose immediate ecclesial-pastoral challenge is in abeyance. [...] 'Systematic' theology is [...] concerned with the truth of the gospel, whether dogmatically defined or not.
- ISBN 978-1-4717-3463-2.
- ^ 2 Pet 1:20–21 Archived 11 April 2021 at the Wayback Machine.
- ISBN 0-00-625195-1.
- ISBN 0-232-52077-1, but with the caution "less probably".
- ^
ISBN 0-310-21895-0.
Many scholars feel that the translation should be: 'Every inspired scripture is also profitable.' This is probably not the best translation, however, for the following reasons: (1) Contextually [...] (2) Grammatically [...]
- ^ "inspire". Oxford English Dictionary (Online ed.). Oxford University Press. (Subscription or participating institution membership required.)
- ^ ISBN 0-8024-2916-5.
- S2CID 170389190.
- ^ Catechism of the Catholic Church, Inspiration and Truth of Sacred Scripture (§105–108) Archived 9 September 2010 at the Wayback Machine
- ^
Second Helvetic Confession (1566), Of the Holy Scripture Being the True Word of God- "We believe and confess the canonical Scriptures of the holy prophets and apostles of both Testaments to be the true Word of God, and to have sufficient authority of themselves, not of men. [...] And in this Holy Scripture, the universal Church of Christ has the most complete exposition of all that pertains to a saving faith, and also to the framing of a life acceptable to God [...]."
- ^ Chicago Statement on Biblical Inerrancy (1978), Online text Archived 17 January 2022 at the Wayback Machine: "Article XI
We affirm that Scripture, having been given by divine inspiration, is infallible, so that, far from misleading us, it is true and reliable in all the matters it addresses." - ^ Catechism of the Catholic Church: "Catechism of the Catholic Church - Sacred Scripture". Archived from the original on 9 June 2010. Retrieved 15 March 2020.
{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: bot: original URL status unknown (link) - "107 The inspired books teach the truth. 'Since therefore all that the inspired authors or sacred writers affirm should be regarded as affirmed by the Holy Spirit, we must acknowledge that the books of Scripture firmly, faithfully, and without error teach that truth which God, for the sake of our salvation, wished to see confided to the Sacred Scriptures.'" - ^
Compare:
"Bible Infallibility - 'Evangelical' Defenders of the Faith". The Westminster Review. 75. Leonard Scott Publication: 49. January 1861. Retrieved 6 September 2020.
[...] the doctrine of the infallibility of the Bible, a doctrine which, according to Mr. Ayre and his school, the apostles held and Christ sanctioned; which from the earliest times the Church has adopted, and which the plenary as well as the verbal inspirationists still maintain.
- ^ Catholic Encyclopedia: Canon of the New Testament Archived 18 January 2019 at the Wayback Machine: "The idea of a complete and clear-cut canon of the New Testament existing from the beginning, that is from Apostolic times, has no foundation in history."
- ^ a b Stagg, Frank. New Testament Theology, Nashville: Broadman, 1962.
- ^ Herman Bavinck, The Doctrine of God. Edinburgh: The Banner of Truth Trust, 1979.
- ^ The Westminster Shorter Catechism's definition of God is merely an enumeration of his attributes: "God is a Spirit, infinite, eternal, and unchangeable in his being, wisdom, power, holiness, justice, goodness, and truth."Westminster Shorter Catechism, Question and Answer 4. The Westminster Larger Catechism adds certain attributes to this description, such as "all-sufficient", "incomprehensible", "every where present" and "knowing all things". Westminster Larger Catechism, Question and Answer 7. This answer has been criticised, however, as having "nothing specifically Christian about it."James B. Jordan, "What is God? Archived 22 December 2010 at the Wayback Machine," Biblical Horizons Newsletter, No. 82.
- ^ D. A. Carson, The Gagging of God (Grand Rapids: Zondervan), 1996.
- ^ David J. Bosch, Transforming Mission (Maryknoll: Orbis Books, 1991), 390.
- ^ Providence Archived 17 April 2011 at the Wayback Machine in The Concise Oxford Dictionary of World Religions.
- ISBN 0-85151-355-7.)
{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link - ^ a b Critical Terms for Religious Studies. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 1998. Credo Reference. 27 July 2009
- ^ a b c d e Encyclopædia Britannica: Purgatory in world religions: Archived 20 August 2008 at the Wayback Machine "The idea of purification or temporary punishment after death has ancient roots and is well-attested in early Christian literature. The conception of purgatory as a geographically situated place is largely the achievement of medieval Christian piety and imagination."
- ^ See discussion in Herbermann, Charles, ed. (1913). . Catholic Encyclopedia. New York: Robert Appleton Company.
- ^ Grudem, Wayne A. 1994. Systematic Theology: An Introduction to Biblical Doctrine. Leicester, England: Inter-Varsity Press; Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan. p. 226.
- ^ ISBN 978-0-8308-1505-0.
- ^ "Tertullian, Against Praxeas, chapter II". Ccel.org. 1 June 2005. Retrieved 8 August 2010.
- ^ ISBN 978-0-19-280290-3.
- ^ John 4:24
- ^ J.N.D. Kelly, Early Christian Doctrines pp. 87–90; T. Desmond Alexander, New Dictionary of Biblical Theology pp. 514–515; Alister E. McGrath, Historical Theology p. 61.
- ^ 1 Jn 5:7
- ISBN 978-0-8054-1613-8.
- ^ Diana L. Eck (2003) Encountering God: A Spiritual Journey from Bozeman to Banaras. p. 98
- ^ Heb 1:2–5, Gal 4:1–7
- ^ Mt. 11:27
- ^ Eph 3:15
- ^ "God sent forth His Son... that we might receive the adoption as sons. And because you are sons, God has sent forth the Spirit of His Son into your hearts crying out, "Abba, Father!" Therefore you are no longer a slave but a son, and if a son, then an heir of God through Christ."; Galatians 4:4–7
- ^ Heb. 1:2–5
- ^ John 1:1
- ISBN 0-310-28670-0.
- ^ Matthew 1:18–25, Luke 1:35, Luke 3:23
- ^ Matt 16:16
- ^ "Etymology Online: Christ". Etymonline.com. Retrieved 8 August 2010.
- ^ Rom 1:3–4
- ^ Compare.Galatians 4:4;Jn 1:1–14;5:18–25;10:30–38
- ^ Jn 17:3
- ^ "A brief account of the early Church councils and the Church fathers shows that they adopted the doctrine of the eternal subordination of the Son, and that this doctrine continues in the Church as orthodoxy to this day." Stephen D. Kovach and Peter R. Schemm Jr., "A Defense of the Doctrine of the Eternal Subordination of the Son", Journal of the Evangelical Theological Society 42 (1999): 461–476.
- ^ Mark 1:10
- ISBN 0-8308-1793-X.
- ^ McKim, Donald K. 1996. Westminster dictionary of theological terms. Louisville, KY: Westminster John Knox Press. p. 140.
- ^ "Jacques Maritain Center: GC 4.54". .nd.edu. Archived from the original on 22 June 2015. Retrieved 8 August 2010.
- ^ "Advent Prayer and the Incarnation". Ewtn.com. Retrieved 8 August 2010.
- ^ * The Seven Ecumenical Councils Archived 29 April 2019 at the Wayback Machine, from the Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers, vols. 2–14 (CCEL.org) Contains detailed statements from each of these councils. The First Council of Nicaea, Council of Ephesus and Council of Chalcedon are the "First," "Third" and "Fourth" Ecumenical Councils, respectively.
- ^ Martin Lembke, lecture in the course "Meetings with the World's Religions", Centre for Theology and Religious Studies, Lund University, Spring Term 2010.
- ^ Gregory of Nyssa, Antirrheticus adversus Apollinarem.
- ^ "Theodore" in The Westminster Dictionary of Christian History, ed. J. Brauer. Philadelphia: Westminster Press, 1971.
- ^ Denzinger, ed. Bannwart, 148
- ^ "The Oriental Orthodox Rejection of Chalcedon". Archived from the original on 19 June 2008. Retrieved 5 October 2006.
- ^ a b Donald Macleod, The Person of Christ (InterVarsity Press, 1998), 220.
- ^ NRSV; Matthew 4.1–11.
- ^ a b Macleod 1998, p. 226
- ^ a b Macleod 1998, p. 227
- ^ Barclay 1967, p. 81
- ^ Barth 1956, p. 207
- ^ MacLeod 1998, pp. 37–41
- ISBN 978-0-88141-319-9.
- ^ "Athenagoras of Athens: A Plea for the Christians". Earlychristianwritings.com. 2 February 2006. Retrieved 8 August 2010.
- ISBN 978-1842270158.
- ^ Greene, pp. 31–43, 324
- ^ Greene, pp. 43–51
- ^ Greene, pp. 51–71, 325
- ^ Fuller 1965, p. 15
- ^ John Calvin, Calvins Calvinism BOOK II Chapter 15 Centers for Reformed Theology and Apologetics [resource online] (1996–2002, accessed 3 June 2006);available from http://www.reformed.org/books/institutes/books/book2/bk2ch15.html#one.htm Archived 12 June 2010 at the Wayback Machine
- ^ H. Orton Wiley, Christian Theology Chapter 22 [resource online] (Nampa, Idaho: 1993–2005, accessed 3 June 2006); available from http://wesley.nnu.edu/holiness_tradition/wiley/wiley-2-22.htm Archived 18 May 2009 at the Wayback Machine
- ISBN 0-8010-3215-6.
- ^ a b T C Hammond (1968). David F Wright (ed.). In Understanding be Men:A Handbook of Christian Doctrine (sixth ed.). Inter-Varsity Press. pp. 54–56, 128–131.
- ^ a b "Catholic Encyclopedia:Holy Spirit".
- ^ Mark 3:28–30, Matthew 12:30–32, Luke 12:8–10
- ^ 1 Cor 3:16
- ^ Jn 14:26
- ^ Spurgeon, Charles H. "The Comforter", 1855. Online: http://www.spurgeon.org/sermons/0005.htm Archived 27 June 2010 at the Wayback Machine Accessed 29 April 2009
- ^ Rom 12:6–8
- ^ Acts 1:4–8
- J. Oswald Sanders. Inter-Varsity Press. chapter 5.
- ^ ISBN 0-8010-3215-6.
- born again" is most frequently used by evangelical Christians, most denominations do consider that the new Christian is a "new creation" and "born again". See for example the Catholic Encyclopedia [1] Archived 28 February 2009 at the Wayback Machine
- ^ T C Hammond (1968). David F Wright (ed.). In Understanding be Men:A Handbook of Christian Doctrine (sixth ed.). Inter-Varsity Press. p. 134.
- ISBN 0-8010-3215-6.
- ISBN 0-334-02838-8.
- ISBN 0-85110-430-4.
- ^ Catechism of the Catholic Church, Section 1832.
- ^ De Sacramentis 3.8.
- ^ ISBN 0-8010-3215-6.
- ^ Communion and Stewardship: Human Persons Created in the Image of God Archived 21 June 2014 at the Wayback Machine,(23 July 2004), International Theological Commission, La Civiltà Cattolica 2004, IV, 254–286
- ^ "CCC Search Result– Paragraph # 291". Scborromeo.org. Retrieved 8 August 2010.
- ^ Millard Erickson, Christian Theology 2nd edn, 537
- ^ Hebrew–English Lexicon, Brown, Driver & Briggs, Hendrickson Publishers.
- ^ Baker's Evangelical Dictionary of Biblical Theology.
- ^ Dictionary of Biblical Theology, Father Xavier Leon Dufour, 1985.
- ^ New International Dictionary.
- ^ New Dictionary of Biblical Theology
- ^ "A careful examination of the biblical material, particularly the words nefesh, neshama, and ruaḥ, which are often too broadly translated as "soul" and "spirit," indicates that these must not be understood as referring to the psychical side of a psychophysical pair. A man did not possess a nefesh but rather was a nefesh, as Gen. 2:7 says: "wayehi ha-adam le-nefesh ḥayya" (". . . and the man became a living being"). Man was, for most of the biblical writers, what has been called "a unit of vital power," not a dual creature separable into two distinct parts of unequal importance and value. While this understanding of the nature of man dominated biblical thought, in apocalyptic literature (2nd century BC–2nd century AD) the term nefesh began to be viewed as a separable psychical entity with existence apart from body.... The biblical view of man as an inseparable psychosomatic unit meant that death was understood to be his dissolution."—Britannica, 2004.
- ^ Exegetical Dictionary of the New Testament
- ^ The early Hebrews apparently had a concept of the soul but did not separate it from the body, although later Jewish writers developed the idea of the soul further. Old Testament references to the soul are related to the concept of breath and establish no distinction between the ethereal soul and the corporeal body. Christian concepts of a body-soul dichotomy originated with the ancient Greeks andwere introduced into Christian theology at an early date by St. Gregory of Nyssa and by St. Augustine.—Britannica, 2004
- ^ Bultmann, I:206
- ^ D. K. Innes, "Sheol" in New Bible Dictionary, IVP 1996.
- ISBN 978-0-8028-2400-4.
- ISBN 978-0-02-907052-9.
- ^ "ScriptureText.com". ScriptureText.com. Retrieved 8 August 2010.
- ^ "Etymonline.com". Etymonline.com. Retrieved 8 August 2010.
- ^ "Online-Literature.com". Online-Literature.com. Retrieved 8 August 2010.
- ^ "What do you think?". AllAboutJesusChrist.org. Retrieved 5 October 2008.
- ^ Book for Commemoration of the Living and the Dead, trans. Father Lawrence (Holy Trinity Monastery, Jordanville NY), p. 77.
- ^ Treated extensively in C. S. Lewis, The Discarded Image: An Introduction to Medieval and Renaissance Literature (1964).
- ^ See discussion at http://forums.catholic.com/showthread.php?p=3322510 Archived 9 May 2011 at the Wayback Machine, where a.o. Hebrews 12:22–24 is quoted.
- ^ For instance, with Justin Martyr. See: Philippe Bobichon, "Millénarisme et orthodoxie dans les écrits de Justin Martyr" in Mélanges sur la question millénariste de l'Antiquité à nos jours, Martin Dumont (dir.) [Bibliothèque d'étude des mondes chrétiens, 11], Paris, 2018, pp. 61-82
- The United Methodist Church. Retrieved 10 March 2011.
Purgatory is believed to be a place where the souls of the faithful dead endure a period of purification and cleansing, aided by the prayers of the living, prior to their entrance into heaven. Although John Wesley believed in an intermediate state between death and the final judgment, that idea is not formally affirmed in Methodist doctrine, which "reject the idea of purgatory but beyond that maintain silence on what lies between death and the last judgment." (Methodist Doctrine: The Essentials by Ted A. Campbell)
- ^ Robin Russell. "Heavenly minded: It's time to get our eschatology right, say scholars, authors". UM Portal. Archived from the original on 22 July 2011. Retrieved 10 March 2011.
John Wesley believed in the intermediate state between death and the final judgment "where believers would share in the 'bosom of Abraham' or 'paradise,' even continuing to grow in holiness there," writes Ted Campbell, a professor at Perkins School of Theology, in his 1999 book Methodist Doctrine: The Essentials (Abingdon). That view has not been officially affirmed by the Church.
- ^ Orthodox Confession of Faith Archived 21 April 1999 at the Wayback Machine, questions 64–66.
- ^ Olivier Clément, L'Église orthodoxe. Presses Universitaires de France, 2006, Section 3, IV
- ^ See, for instance, LDS Life After Death Archived 14 July 2009 at the Wayback Machine
- ^ "GEHENNA - JewishEncyclopedia.com". jewishencyclopedia.com.
- ^ "Browse by Subject". www.chabad.org.
- ^ "Biblical Reference: John 3:18". Ibs.org. Archived from the original on 4 August 2012. Retrieved 8 August 2010.
- ^ "hell– Definitions from Dictionary.com". Dictionary.reference.com. Retrieved 8 August 2010.
- ^ a b c d e "Hell." Cross, F. L., ed. The Oxford dictionary of the Christian church. New York: Oxford University Press. 2005
- ^ New Bible Dictionary third edition, IVP 1996. Articles on "Hell", "Sheol".
- ^ ISBN 0-9532992-2-8.
- ^ C. S. Lewis, The Great Divorce, 1946
- ^ Lee Strobel, The Case for Faith, 2000
- ^ Millard Erickson (2001). Introducing Christian Doctrine, 2nd ed. Baker Academic.
- ^ "The Nature of Hell. Conclusions and Recommendations". Evangelical Alliance. 2000. Archived from the original on 22 February 2012. Retrieved 11 June 2019.
{{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires|journal=(help) - ^ New Dictionary of Biblical Theology; IVP Leicester 2000, "Hell"
- ^ Encyclopædia Britannica: Theodicy
- ^ The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, "The Problem of Evil Archived 6 September 2018 at the Wayback Machine", Michael Tooley
- ^ a b c The Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy, "The Evidential Problem of Evil Archived 10 April 2009 at the Wayback Machine", Nick Trakakis
- ISBN 0-19-926479-1.formulates a defense. The idea of human free will often appears in both of these strategies, but in different ways.
John Hick, for example, proposes a theodicy, while Alvin Plantinga
- ISBN 0-19-926479-1.
- ^ Lewis, C. S., The Problem of Pain HarperCollins:New York, 1996 pp. 24–25
- ^ William A. Dembski, The End of Christianity: Finding a Good God in an Evil World. (Nashville: Broadman and Holman, 2009
- ^ "Bible Gateway passage: Isaiah 45:7 – King James Version". Bible Gateway.
- ^ Ehrman, Bart D., God's Problem: How the Bible Fails to Answer Our Most Important Question – Why We Suffer. HarperOne, 2008
- ^ Bavinck, Herman. Reformed Dogmatics Vol. 3. (Grand Rapids: Baker Academic, 2004) pp. 75–125 detail the historical development of Hamartiology, including Pelagius's position and the mediating positions)
- ^ Paul's Epistle to the Romans, chapter 3 verse 23
- ^ John 3:16
- ^ The term "ancestral sin" is also used, as in Greek προπατορικὴ ἁμαρτία (e.g. Πόλεμος και φτώχεια– η ορθόδοξη άποψη, Archived 21 July 2011 at the Wayback Machine Η νηστεία της Σαρακοστής Archived 17 June 2016 at the Wayback Machine, Πώς στράφηκε ο Λούθηρος κατά του Μοναχισμού– του Γεωργίου Φλωρόφσκυ Archived 15 February 2017 at the Wayback Machine) or προπατορικὸ ἁμάρτημα (e.g. Απαντήσεις σε ερωτήματα δογματικά– Ανδρέα Θεοδώρου, εκδ. Αποστολικής Διακονίας, 1997, σελ. 156–161 Archived 21 September 2020 at the Wayback Machine, Θεοτόκος και προπατορικό αμάρτημα Archived 27 April 2010 at the Wayback Machine)
- ISBN 978-0-19-280290-3.
- ISBN 978-0-88489-725-5.
- ^ Augustine wrote to Julian of Eclanum: Sed si disputatione subtilissima et elimatissima opus est, ut sciamus utrum primos homines insipientia superbos, an insipientes superbia fecerit. (Contra Julianum, V, 4.18; PL 44, 795)
- ^ Nisi radicem mali humanus tunc reciperet sensus ("Contra Julianum", I, 9.42; PL 44, 670)
- ^ Libido quae transmittit peccatum originale in prolem, non-est libido actualis, quia dato quod virtute divina concederetur alicui quod nullam inordinatam libidinem in actu generationis sentiret, adhuc transmitteret in prolem originale peccatum. Sed libido illa est intelligenda habitualiter, secundum quod appetitus sensitivus non-continetur sub ratione vinculo originalis iustitiae. Et talis libido in omnibus est aequalis (STh Iª-IIae q. 82 a. 4 ad 3).
- ^ Non substantialiter manere concupiscentiam, sicut corpus aliquod aut spiritum; sed esse affectionem quamdam malae qualitatis, sicut est languor. (De nuptiis et concupiscentia, I, 25. 28; PL 44, 430; cf. Contra Julianum, VI, 18.53; PL 44, 854; ibid. VI, 19.58; PL 44, 857; ibid., II, 10.33; PL 44, 697; Contra Secundinum Manichaeum, 15; PL 42, 590.
- ^ Augustine wrote to Julian of Eclanum: Quis enim negat futurum fuisse concubitum, etiamsi peccatum non-praecessisset? Sed futurus fuerat, sicut aliis membris, ita etiam genitalibus voluntate motis, non-libidine concitatis; aut certe etiam ipsa libidine– ut non-vos de illa nimium contristemus– non-qualis nunc est, sed ad nutum voluntarium serviente (Contra Julianum, IV. 11. 57; PL 44, 766). See also his late work: Contra secundam Iuliani responsionem imperfectum opus, II, 42; PL 45,1160; ibid. II, 45; PL 45,1161; ibid., VI, 22; PL 45, 1550–1551. Cf.Schmitt, É. (1983). Le mariage chrétien dans l'oeuvre de Saint Augustin. Une théologie baptismale de la vie conjugale. Études Augustiniennes. Paris. p. 104.
{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link) - ^ Justo L. Gonzalez (1970–1975). A History of Christian Thought: Volume 2 (From Augustine to the eve of the Reformation). Abingdon Press.
- ^
Forget, Jacques (1910). "Jansenius and Jansenism". In Herbermann, Charles (ed.). Catholic Encyclopedia. Vol. 8. New York: Robert Appleton Company. Retrieved 8 August 2010.
- ^ Therefore, just as sin came into the world through one man, and death through sin, and so death spread to all men because all sinned—for sin indeed was in the world before the law was given, but sin is not counted where there is no law. Yet death reigned from Adam to Moses, even over those whose sinning was not like the transgression of Adam, who was a type of the one who was to come.—Romans 5:12–14, ESV "Therefore, as one trespass led to condemnation for all men, so one act of righteousness leads to justification and life for all men. For as by the one man's disobedience the many were made sinners, so by the one man's obedience the many will be made righteous. Now the law came in to increase the trespass, but where sin increased, grace abounded all the more, so that, as sin reigned in death, grace also might reign through righteousness leading to eternal life through Jesus Christ our Lord."—Rom. 5:18–21, ESV
- ^ The Book of Concord, "The Thorough Declaration of the Formula of Concord," chapter II, sections 11 and 12 Archived 16 May 2008 at the Wayback Machine; The Augsburg Confession, Article 2 Archived 12 June 2010 at the Wayback Machine
- ^ Arminius, James The Writings of James Arminius (three vols.), tr. James Nichols and William R. Bagnall (Grand Rapids: Baker, 1956), I:252
- Canons of Dordrecht, "The Third and Fourth Main Points of Doctrine" Archived 29 July 2013 at the Wayback Machine; Westminster Confession of Faith, chapter 6 Archived 13 June 2010 at the Wayback Machine; Westminster Larger Catechism, Question 25 Archived 13 June 2010 at the Wayback Machine; Heidelberg Catechism, question 8 Archived 3 September 2020 at the Wayback Machine
- ^ The Westminster Confession of Faith, 9.3 Archived 13 June 2010 at the Wayback Machine
- ^ Ra McLaughlin. "Total Depravity, part 1". Reformed Perspectives. Retrieved 14 July 2008.
[Any person] can do outwardly good works, but these works come from a heart that hates God, and therefore fail to meet God's righteous standards.
- ^ Charles Partee, The Theology of John Calvin (Westminster John Knox, 2008), 129. "By total depravity Calvin means totally susceptible to sin."
- ^ John Calvin, Institutes of the Christian Religion, trans. Henry Beveridge, III.23.2.
- ^ John Calvin, Institutes of the Christian Religion, trans. Henry Beveridge, II.3.5.
- ^ John Calvin, Institutes of the Christian Religion, trans. Henry Beveridge, III.3.6.
- ^ a b c d "Calvinism and Lutheranism Compared". WELS Topical Q&A. Wisconsin Evangelical Lutheran Synod. Archived from the original on 27 September 2009. Retrieved 26 January 2015.
"Total Depravity – Lutherans and Calvinists agree." Yes this is correct. Both agree on the devastating nature of the fall and that man by nature has no power to aid in his conversions...and that election to salvation is by grace. In Lutheranism the German term for election is Gnadenwahl, election by grace--there is no other kind.
- ^ Robert L. Browning and Roy A. Reed, Forgiveness, Reconciliation, and Moral Courage (Eerdmans, 2004), 113. "Luther did not mean by 'total depravity' that everything a person did was depraved. He meant that depravity, sin and wickedness can invade any and every part of life."
- ^ Henry Cole, trans, Martin Luther on the Bondage of the Will (London, T. Bensley, 1823), 66. The controversial term liberum arbitrium was translated "free-will" by Cole. However Ernest Gordon Rupp and Philip Saville Watson, Luther and Erasmus: Free Will and Salvation (Westminster, 1969) chose "free choice" as their translation.
- ^ Roger E. Olson, Arminian Theology: Myths and Realities (InterVarsity Press, 2009), 17. "Arminians of the heart emphatically do not deny total depravity," but prefer not to use the word.
- ^ Keith D. Stanglin and Thomas H. McCall, Jacob Arminius: Theologian of Grace (Oxford University, 2012), 157–158.
- ^ Soteriology. Dictionary.com. WordNet 3.0. Princeton University. http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/Soteriology Archived 13 November 2007 at the Wayback Machine (accessed: 2 March 2008).
- ^ "soteriology– Definition from the Merriam-Webster Online Dictionary". Merriam-webster.com. 25 April 2007. Retrieved 8 August 2010.
- ^ Table drawn from, though not copied, from Lange, Lyle W. God So Loved the World: A Study of Christian Doctrine. Milwaukee: Northwestern Publishing House, 2006. p. 448.
- ^ John Calvin, Institutes of the Christian Religion, trans. Henry Beveridge, III.23.2.
- ^ John Calvin, Institutes of the Christian Religion, trans. Henry Beveridge, II.3.5.
- ^ John Calvin, Institutes of the Christian Religion, trans. Henry Beveridge, III.3.6.
- ^ Morris, J.W., The Historic Church: An Orthodox View of Christian History, p267, "The Book of Concord became the official statement of doctrine for most of the world's Lutherans. The Formula of Concord reaffirmed the traditional Lutheran doctrine of total depravity in very clear terms"
- ^ Melton, J.G., Encyclopedia of Protestantism, p229, on Formula of Concord, "the 12 articles of the formula focused on a number of newer issues such as original sin (in which total depravity is affirmed)"
- ^ "WELS vs Assembly of God". WELS Topical Q&A. Archived from the original on 14 July 2014.
[P]eople by nature are dead in their transgressions and sin and therefore have no ability to decide of Christ (Ephesians 2:1, 5). We do not choose Christ, rather he chose us (John 15:16) We believe that human beings are purely passive in conversion.
- ^ Augsburg Confessional, Article XVIII, Of Free Will, saying: "(M)an's will has some liberty to choose civil righteousness, and to work things subject to reason. But it has no power, without the Holy Ghost, to work the righteousness of God, that is, spiritual righteousness; since the natural man receiveth not the things of the Spirit of God (1 Cor. 2:14); but this righteousness is wrought in the heart when the Holy Ghost is received through the Word."
- ^ Henry Cole, trans., Martin Luther on the Bondage of the Will (London, T. Bensley, 1823), 66. The controversial term liberum arbitrium was translated "free-will" by Cole. However Ernest Gordon Rupp and Philip Saville Watson, Luther and Erasmus: Free Will and Salvation (Westminster, 1969) chose "free choice" as their translation.
- ^ Stanglin, Keith D.; McCall, Thomas H. (15 November 2012). Jacob Arminius: Theologian of Grace. New York: Oxford University Press USA. pp. 157–158.
- The Book of Concord: The Confessions of the Lutheran Church, XI. Election. "Predestination" means "God's ordination to salvation".
- ^ Olson, Roger E. (2009). Arminian Theology: Myths and Realities. Downers Grove: InterVarsity Press. p. 63.
Arminians accepts divine election, [but] they believe it is conditional.
- ^ The Westminster Confession, III:6, says that only the "elect" are "effectually called, justified, adopted, sanctified, and saved." However in his Calvin and the Reformed Tradition (Baker, 2012), 45, Richard A. Muller observes that "a sizeable body of literature has interpreted Calvin as teaching "limited atonement", but "an equally sizeable body . . . [interprets] Calvin as teaching "unlimited atonement".
- ^ "Justification / Salvation". WELS Topical Q&A. Wisconsin Evangelical Lutheran Synod. Archived from the original on 27 September 2009. Retrieved 29 January 2015.
Romans 3:23-24, 5:9, 18 are other passages that lead us to say that it is most appropriate and accurate to say that universal justification is a finished fact. God has forgiven the sins of the whole world whether people believe it or not. He has done more than "made forgiveness possible." All this is for the sake of the perfect substitutionary work of Jesus Christ.
- ^ "IV. Justification by Grace through Faith". This We Believe. Wisconsin Evangelical Lutheran Synod. Retrieved 5 February 2015.
We believe that God has justified all sinners, that is, he has declared them righteous for the sake of Christ. This is the central message of Scripture upon which the very existence of the church depends. It is a message relevant to people of all times and places, of all races and social levels, for "the result of one trespass was condemnation for all men" (Romans 5:18]). All need forgiveness of sins before God, and Scripture proclaims that all have been justified, for "the result of one act of righteousness was justification that brings life for all men" (Romans 5:18). We believe that individuals receive this free gift of forgiveness not on the basis of their own works, but only through faith (Ephesians 2:8–9). ... On the other hand, although Jesus died for all, Scripture says that "whoever does not believe will be condemned" (Mark 16:16). Unbelievers forfeit the forgiveness won for them by Christ (John 8:24).
- ^ Becker, Siegbert W. "Objective Justification" (PDF). Wisconsin Lutheran Seminary. p. 1. Retrieved 26 January 2015.
- ^ "Universal Justification". WELS Topical Q&A. Wisconsin Evangelical Lutheran Synod. Archived from the original on 27 September 2009. Retrieved 5 February 2015.
Christ paid for all our sins. God the Father has therefore forgiven them. But to benefit from this verdict we need to hear about it and trust in it. If I deposit money in the bank for you, to benefit from it you need to hear about it and use it. Christ has paid for your sins, but to benefit from it you need to hear about it and believe in it. We need to have faith but we should not think of faith as our contribution. It is a gift of God which the Holy Spirit works in us.
- ^ Augsburg Confession, Article V, Of Justification. People "cannot be justified before God by their own strength, merits, or works, but are freely justified for Christ's sake, through faith, when they believe that they are received into favor, and that their sins are forgiven for Christ's sake. ..."
- ^ Stanglin, Keith D.; McCall, Thomas H. (15 November 2012). Jacob Arminius: Theologian of Grace. New York: Oxford University Press USA. p. 136.
Faith is a condition of justification
- ^ Paul ChulHong Kang, Justification: The Imputation of Christ's Righteousness from Reformation Theology to the American Great Awakening and the Korean Revivals (Peter Lang, 2006), 70, note 171. Calvin generally defends Augustine's "monergistic view".
- ^ Diehl, Walter A. "The Age of Accountability". Wisconsin Lutheran Seminary. Retrieved 10 February 2015.
In full accord with Scripture the Lutheran Confessions teach monergism. "In this manner, too, the Holy Scriptures ascribe conversion, faith in Christ, regeneration, renewal and all the belongs to their efficacious beginning and completion, not to the human powers of the natural free will, neither entirely, nor half, nor in any, even the least or most inconsiderable part, but in solidum, that is, entirely, solely, to the divine working and the Holy Ghost" (Trigl. 891, F.C., Sol. Decl., II, 25).
- ^ Monergism; thefreedictionary.com
- ^ "Calvinism and Lutheranism Compared". WELS Topical Q&A. Wisconsin Evangelical Lutheran Synod. Archived from the original on 27 September 2009. Retrieved 9 February 2015.
- ^ Olson, Roger E. (2009). Arminian Theology: Myths and Realities. Downers Grove: InterVarsity Press. p. 18.
Arminian synergism" refers to "evangelical synergism, which affirms the prevenience of grace.
- ^ Olson, Roger E. (2009). Arminian Theology: Myths and Realities. Downers Grove: InterVarsity Press. p. 165.
[Arminius]' evangelical synergism reserves all the power, ability and efficacy in salvation to grace, but allows humans the God-granted ability to resist or not resist it. The only "contribution" humans make is nonresistance to grace.
- ^ The Westminster Confession of Faith, Ch XVII, "Of the Perseverance of the Saints".
- ^ "Once saved always saved". WELS Topical Q&A. Wisconsin Evangelical Lutheran Synod. Archived from the original on 27 September 2009. Retrieved 7 February 2015.
People can fall from faith. The Bible warns, "If you think you are standing firm, be careful that you don't fall" (1 Corinthians 10:12). Some among the Galatians had believed for a while, but had fallen into soul-destroying error. Paul warned them, "You who are trying to be justified by law have been alienated from Christ; you have fallen away from grace" (Galatians 5:4). In his explanation of the parable of the sower, Jesus says, "Those on the rock are the ones who receive the word with joy when they hear it, but they have no root. They believe for a while, but in time of testing they fall away" (Luke 8:13). According to Jesus a person can believe for a while and then fall away. While they believed they possessed eternal salvation, but when they fell from faith they lost God's gracious gift.
- ^ "Perseverence of the Saints (Once Saved Always Saved)". WELS Topical Q&A. Wisconsin Evangelical Lutheran Synod. Archived from the original on 27 September 2009. Retrieved 7 February 2015.
We cannot contribute one speck to our salvation, but by our own arrogance or carelessness we can throw it away. Therefore, Scripture urges us repeatedly to fight the good fight of faith (Ephesians 6 and 2 Timothy 4 for example). My sins threaten and weaken my faith, but the Spirit through the gospel in word and sacraments strengthens and preserves my faith. That's why Lutherans typically speak of God's preservation of faith and not the perseverance of the saints. The key is not our perseverance but the Spirit's preservation.
- ^ Demarest, Bruce A. (1997). The Cross and Salvation: The Doctrine of Salvation. Crossway Books. pp. 437–438.
- ^ Demarest, Bruce A. (1997). The Cross and Salvation: The Doctrine of Salvation. Crossway Books. p. 35.
Many Arminians deny the doctrine of the perseverance of the saints.
- ^ "Bishop– Definition and More from the Free Merriam-Webster Dictionary". Merriam-webster.com. 25 April 2007. Retrieved 8 August 2010.
- ^ Hexam's Concise Dictionary of Religion "Sacrament" obtained at https://www.ucalgary.ca/~nurelweb/concise/WORDS-S.html Archived 3 March 2009 at the Wayback Machine
- ^ Catholic Encyclopaedia: "Sacraments" http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/13295a.htm Archived 14 July 2010 at the Wayback Machine
- ^ The Sacraments http://www.oca.org/QA.asp?ID=122&SID=3 Archived 17 June 2010 at the Wayback Machine
- ^ Ignazio Silone, Bread and Wine (1937).
- ^ Encyclopædia Britannica. "Encyclopædia Britannica, s.v. Eucharist". Britannica.com. Retrieved 8 August 2010.
- ^ cf. The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language: Fourth Edition 2000 Archived 10 February 2009 at the Wayback Machine
- ^ "Parallel Translations". Bible.cc. Retrieved 8 August 2010.
- ^ 1 Corinthians 10:16
- ISBN 0-8423-7089-7.
- ISBN 978-0-19-280290-3.
- ^ (1 Corinthians 11:23–25
- ^ And as they were eating, he took bread, and blessed (εὐλογήσας– eulogēsas), and broke it, and gave it to them, and said, "Take; this is my body." And he took a cup, and when he had given thanks (εὐχαριστήσας– eucharistēsas) he gave it to them, and they all drank of it. And he said to them, "This is my blood of the covenant, which is poured out for many. Truly, I say to you, I shall not drink again of the fruit of the vine until that day when I drink it new in the kingdom of God." Mark 14:22–25
- ^ Now as they were eating, Jesus took bread, and blessed (εὐλογήσας– eulogēsas), and broke it, and gave it to the disciples and said, "Take, eat; this is my body." And he took a cup, and when he had given thanks (εὐχαριστήσας– eucharistēsas) he gave it to them, saying, "Drink of it, all of you; for this is my blood of the covenant, which is poured out for many for the forgiveness of sins. I tell you I shall not drink again of this fruit of the vine until that day when I drink it new with you in my Father's kingdom." Matthew 26:26–29
- ^ They prepared the passover. And when the hour came, he sat at table, and the apostles with him. And he said to them, "I have earnestly desired to eat this passover with you before I suffer; for I tell you I shall not eat it until it is fulfilled in the kingdom of God." And he took a cup, and when he had given thanks (εὐχαριστήσας– eucharistēsas) he said, "Take this, and divide it among yourselves; for I tell you that from now on I shall not drink of the fruit of the vine until the kingdom of God comes." And he took bread, and when he had given thanks (εὐχαριστήσας– eucharistēsas) he broke it and gave it to them, saying, "This is my body which is given for you. Do this in remembrance of me." And likewise the cup after supper, saying, "This cup which is poured out for you is the new covenant in my blood. ..." Luke 22:13–20
- ^ Harris, Stephen L., Understanding the Bible. Palo Alto: Mayfield. 1985.
- ISBN 0-8423-7089-7.
- ISBN 0-8028-8045-2.
- Bruce Metzger. The canon of the New Testament. 1997
- ^ "There are now two quite separate Eucharistic celebrations given in Didache 9–10, with the earlier one now put in second place." Crossan. The historical Jesus. Citing Riggs, John W. 1984
- ^ " ... (t)he eucharist is the flesh of our Saviour Jesus Christ, which flesh suffered for our sins, and which in His loving-kindness the Father raised up. ... Let that eucharist alone be considered valid which is under the bishop or him to whom he commits it. ... It is not lawful apart from the bishop either to baptize, or to hold a love-feast. But whatsoever he approves, that also is well-pleasing to God, that everything which you do may be secure and valid." Letter to the Smyrnaeans, 6, 8 Archived 25 February 2021 at the Wayback Machine "Give heed to keep one Eucharist. For there is one flesh of our Lord Jesus Christ, and one cup unto union with His blood. There is one altar, as there is one bishop, together with the presbytery and deacons, my fellow-servants; that whatsoever you do, you may do according unto God."Letter to the Philadelphians, 4 Archived 29 November 2010 at the Wayback Machine
- ^ First Apology Archived 31 July 2017 at the Wayback Machine, 65–67
- ^ For example, Roman Catholics, Eastern Orthodox, Oriental Orthodox, Anglo-Catholics, Old Catholics; and cf. the presentation of the Eucharist as a sacrament in the Baptism, Eucharist and Ministry document Archived 9 July 2008 at the Wayback Machine of the World Council of Churches
- ^ "Most Christian traditions also teach that Jesus is present in the Eucharist in some special way, though they disagree about the mode, the locus, and the time of that presence" (Encyclopædia Britannica Online) Archived 19 May 2008 at the Wayback Machine.
- ^ Bobichon, Philippe. "Philippe Bobichon, Millénarisme et orthodoxie dans les écrits de Justin Martyr". In Mélanges Sur la Question Millénariste de l'Antiquité À Nos Jours, Martin Dumont (Dir.) [Bibliothèque d'Étude des Mondes Chrétiens, 11], Paris, 2018, P. 61-82. Archived from the original on 14 April 2021. Retrieved 23 March 2021.
- ^ Alexander Roberts & James Donaldson, eds. Ante-Nicene Fathers. (16 vol.) Peabody, Massachusetts: Hendrickson, 1994. The writings of Ignatius and Justin Martyr can be found in Vol. 1; Tertullian, in Volumes 3–4; and Origen, in Volume 4.
Bibliography
- Berkhof, Louis. (1996). The History of Christian Doctrine. Banner of Truth. ISBN 0-85151-005-1.
- Demarest, Bruce A. (1997). The Cross and Salvation: The Doctrine of Salvation. Crossway Books. ISBN 978-0-89107-937-8.
- Edwards, Mark (2009). Catholicity and Heresy in the Early Church. Ashgate. ISBN 9780754662914.
- Hill, Jonathan (2003). The History of Christian Thought. Lion Books. ISBN 0-7459-5093-0.
- Volume 1: The Living God (1992). ISBN 0-06-066363-4
- Volume 2: The Word of Life (1992). ISBN 0-06-066364-2
- Volume 3: Life in the Spirit (1994). ISBN 0-06-066362-6
- Volume 1: The Living God (1992).
- Kang, Paul ChulHong (2006). Justification: The Imputation of Christ's Righteousness from Reformation Theology to the American Great Awakening and the Korean Revivals. New York: ISBN 978-0-8204-8605-5.
- Lange, Lyle W. (2005). God So Loved the World: A Study of Christian Doctrine. Milwaukee: Northwestern Publishing House. ISBN 978-0-8100-1744-3.
- Luther, Martin (1823). Martin Luther on the Bondage of the Will: Written in Answer to the Diatribe of Erasmus on Free-will. First Pub. in the Year of Our Lord 1525. Translated by Cole, Henry. London: T. Bensley.
- ISBN 978-0470654842.
- ISBN 978-1444335149.
- Muller, Richard A. (2012). Calvin and the Reformed Tradition: On the Work of Christ and the Order of Salvation. Baker Books. ISBN 978-1-4412-4254-9.
- Olson, Roger E. (2009). Arminian Theology: Myths and Realities. Downers Grove: InterVarsity Press.
- ISBN 978-0-664-24158-2.
- Stanglin, Keith D.; McCall, Thomas H. (15 November 2012). Jacob Arminius: Theologian of Grace. New York: OUP USA. ISBN 978-0-19-975567-7.
- See the Christian Theology Reading Room (Tyndale Seminary) for an extensive collection of online resources for Christian Theology.
- Christian Classics Ethereal Library
- Jonathan Hayward, contemporary Orthodox theologian
- Orthodox Church Fathers: Christian Theology Classics Search Engine
External links
- Table of Christian theological terms in Argumentrix (archived 31 January 2013)