Christianity and Druze
Christianity and Druze are
Historically the relationship between the
The Maronite
Druze doctrine teaches that Christianity is to be "esteemed and praised" as the Gospel writers are regarded as "carriers of wisdom".[16] The Druze faith incorporates some elements of Christianity,[17][18] in addition to adoption of Christian elements on the Epistles of Wisdom.[19] Both religions revere Jesus,[20][21] John the Baptist,[22][23] Saint George,[24] Elijah,[22] Luke the Evangelist,[23] Job and other common figures.[25] Figures in the Old Testament such as Adam, Noah, Abraham, Moses, and Jethro are considered important prophets of God in the Druze faith, being among the seven prophets who appeared in different periods of history.[20][21]
Religious comparison
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In terms of religious comparison,
Monotheism
The Druze conception of the deity is declared by them to be one of strict and uncompromising unity. The main Druze doctrine states that God is both transcendent and immanent, in which he is above all attributes, but at the same time, he is present.[51] In their desire to maintain a rigid confession of unity, they stripped from God all attributes (tanzīh). In God, there are no attributes distinct from his essence. He is wise, mighty, and just, not by wisdom, might, and justice, but by his own essence. God is "the whole of existence", rather than "above existence" or on his throne, which would make him "limited". There is neither "how", "when", nor "where" about him; he is incomprehensible.[51]
Reincarnation
Reincarnation is a paramount tenet in the
In the major Christian denominations, the concept of reincarnation is not present and it is nowhere explicitly referred to in the Bible. However, the impossibility of a second earthly death is stated by 1 Peter 3:18-20,
Around the 11–12th century in Europe, several reincarnationist movements were persecuted as heresies, through the establishment of the
Incarnation
The
Historian David R. W. Bryer defines the Druzes as ghulat of Isma'ilism, since they exaggerated the cult of the caliph al-Hakim bi-Amr Allah and considered him divine; he also defines the Druzes as a religion that deviated from Islam.[68] He also added that as a result of this deviation, the Druze faith "seems as different from Islam as Islam is from Christianity or Christianity is from Judaism".[66]
The incarnation of
Views on circumcision
Christianity does not require male
While male
Perspectives on common figures
Druze doctrine teaches that Christianity is to be "esteemed and praised" as the Gospel writers are regarded as "carriers of wisdom".[90] Both religions revere Jesus,[20][21] John the Baptist,[22][23] Saint George,[91] Elijah,[22] Luke the Evangelist,[25] Job and other common figures.[25] The Druze faith shows influence of Christian monasticism, among other religious practices.[92]
Figures in the
Salman the Persian is honored as a prophet in the Druze faith, and as an incarnation of the monotheistic idea.[97][98] As a practicing Zoroastrian, he dedicated much of his early life to studying to become a magus, though he later became preoccupied with travelling throughout Western Asia to engage in interfaith dialogue with other religious groups. His quests eventually prompted his conversion to Christianity and later his conversion to Islam, which occurred after he met and befriended Muhammad in the city of Yathrib.[99] In 587 he met a Nestorian Christian group and was impressed by them. Against the wishes of his father, he left his family to join them.[100] His family imprisoned him afterwards to prevent him but he escaped.[100]
Perspectives on Jesus
Both faiths give a prominent place to Jesus:[20][21] Jesus is the central figure of Christianity, and in the Druze faith, Jesus is considered an important prophet of God,[20][21] being among the seven prophets who appeared in different periods of history.[101]
Christian
Jesus is the central figure of Christianity.
Druze Faith
The Druze venerate Jesus "the son of Joseph and Mary" and his four disciples, who wrote the Gospels.[111] According to the Druze manuscripts Jesus is the Greatest Imam and the incarnation of Ultimate Reason (Akl) on earth and the first cosmic principle (Hadd),[111] and regards Jesus and Hamza ibn Ali as the incarnations of one of the five great celestial powers, who form part of their system.[112] Druze doctrines include the beliefs that Jesus was born of a virgin named Mary, performed miracles, and died by crucifixion.[111] Druze doctrines include that Hamza ibn Ali took Jesus down from the cross and allowed him to return to his family, in order to prepare men for the preaching of his religion.[111] In the Druze tradition, Jesus is known under three titles: the True Messiah (al-Masih al-Haq), the Messiah of all Nations (Masih al-Umam), and the Messiah of Sinners. This is due, respectively, to the belief that Jesus delivered the true Gospel message, the belief that he was the Saviour of all nations, and the belief that he offers forgiveness.[113]
Druze believe that Hamza ibn Ali was a reincarnation of Jesus,[114] and that Hamza ibn Ali is the true Messiah, who directed the deeds of the Messiah Jesus "the son of Joseph and Mary", but when Jesus "the son of Joseph and Mary" strayed from the path of the true Messiah, Hamza filled the hearts of the Jews with hatred for him – and for that reason, they crucified him, according to the Druze manuscripts.[111][115] Despite this, Hamza ibn Ali took him down from the cross and allowed him to return to his family, in order to prepare men for the preaching of his religion.[111] In an epistle ascribed to one of the founders of Druzism, Baha al-Din al-Muqtana,[116] probably written sometime between AD 1027 and AD 1042, accused the Jews of crucifying Jesus.[117]
Perspectives on Elijah, John the Baptist, and Saint George
Both religions revere John the Baptist,[22][23] Saint George, and Elijah.[22] Druze, believe that Elijah came back as John the Baptist,[52][53] or as Saint George, since they belief in reincarnation and the transmigration of the soul, Druze believe that El Khidr and John the Baptist and Saint George are one and the same.[53] Elijah is a central figure of Druzism, and he considered patron of the Druze people.[52]
Due to the Christian influnce on the Druze faith, two
Druze Faith
Druze tradition honors several "mentors" and "prophets", and Elijah (
Druze, like some Christians, believe that Elijah came back as John the Baptist,[52][53] or as Saint George, since they belief in reincarnation and the transmigration of the soul, Druze believe that El Khidr and John the Baptist are one and the same.[53]
Saint George is described as a prophetic figure in Druze sources;[122] and in some sources he is identified with Elijah or Mar Elias,[122] and in others as al-Khidr.[125] Druze believe that Elijah came back as John the Baptist and as Saint George, and the Druze version of the story of al-khidr was syncretized with the story of Saint George and the Dragon.[122]
Christian
The Christian
John the Baptist is also known as John the Forerunner in Christianity, John the Immerser in some Baptist Christian traditions,[134] He is considered to be a prophet of God by all of these faiths, and is honoured as a saint in many Christian denominations. According to the New Testament, John anticipated a messianic figure greater than himself,[135] and the Gospels portray John as the precursor or forerunner of Jesus,[136] since John announces Jesus' coming and prepares the people for Jesus' ministry. Jesus himself identifies John as "Elijah who is to come",[137] which is a direct reference to the Book of Malachi (Malachi 4:5),[138] that has been confirmed by the angel who announced John's birth to his father, Zechariah.[139] According to the Gospel of Luke, John and Jesus were relatives.[140][141]
Saint George was a
Religious text
Christian elements in the Epistles of Wisdom
The
A Christian
History
Historically the relationship between the Druze and Christians has been characterized by
According to scholar Pinḥas Artzi of Bar-Ilan University:
"Europeans who visited the area during this period related that the Druze "love the Christians more than the other believers", and that they "hate the Turks, the Muslims and the Arabs [Bedouin] with an intense hatred".[5]
The Druze faith extended to many areas in the Middle East, but most of the modern Druze can trace their origin to the
Many of the Druze feudal families, whose genealogies have been preserved by the two modern Syrian chroniclers Haydar al-Shihabi and
Wadi al-Taym
Wadi al-Taym is named after the
This valley became one of the first places where the heterodox
For much of the early 12th century, the Wadi al-Taym and the southern
Tanukhids
The
Epistle 50, one of the
In the 11th century, the
Ma'n dynasty
The Ottomans, through the
Under Fakhr al-Din's overlordship, Maronite,
Under Emir Fakhr al-Din the Christians could raise their heads high. They built churches, rode horses with saddles, wore turbans of fine muslin and belts with precious inlays, and carried jeweled rifles. Missionaries from Europe came and established themselves in Mount Lebanon. This was because his troops were Christians, and his stewards and attendants Maronites.[184]
In Lebanese nationalist narratives,
Shihab dynasty
The Shihab dynasty was an Arab family whose members served as the paramount tax farmers and local chiefs of Mount Lebanon from the early 18th to mid-19th century, during Ottoman rule. Their reign began in 1697 after the death of the last Ma'nid chief. The family centralized control over Mount Lebanon, destroying the feudal power of the mostly Druze lords and cultivating the Maronite clergy as an alternative power base of the emirate. During Yusuf Shihab's rule, many members of the Shihab family converted to Christianity and Yusuf also began to rely on the support of the Maronite Christians.[187]
On 3 September 1840,
The "Druze-Christian alliance" during this century was the major factor enabling the
1860 civil conflict in Mount Lebanon
The 1860 civil conflict in Mount Lebanon and Damascus (also called the 1860 Syrian Civil War[201]) was a civil conflict in Mount Lebanon during Ottoman rule in 1860–1861 fought mainly between the local Druze and Christians. Following decisive Druze victories and massacres against the Christians, the conflict spilled over into other parts of Ottoman Syria, particularly Damascus, where thousands of Christian residents (10,0000) were killed by Muslim and Druze militiamen.[202] The fighting precipitated a French-led international military intervention.[202]
Bitter conflicts between Christians and Druzes, which had been simmering under
While the Ottoman authorities pursued a divide-and-rule strategy, various European powers established alliances with the various religious groups in the region. The French established an alliance with the Lebanese Christians, while the Druze formalized an alliance with the British, allowing them to send Protestant missionaries into the region.[203] The increasing tensions led to an outbreak of conflict between Christians and Druzes as early as May 1845. Consequently, the European great powers requested for the Ottoman sultan to establish order in Lebanon, and he attempted to do so by establishing a new council in each of the districts. Composed of members of the various religious communities, the councils were intended to assist the deputy governor.[203]
Economic and demographic factors also played a role in undermining the peaceful coexistence of the Druze and Christian in this period, the
Maronite-Druze dualism in Mount Lebanon Mutasarrifate
After fierce fighting erupted between the Druze and Maronite populations in the Mount Lebanon region in 1860.
In 1870 many
Modern history
The Maronite
The relationship between the Druze and Christians in Syria, Lebanon and Israel has been characterized by harmony and peaceful coexistence, and they lived in the Chuf Mountains in the past in complete harmony.[4] Druze and Christians in Syria, Lebanon and Israel celebrate each other's births, weddings, funerals, and celebrations such as Christmas, Maundy Thursday (in Lebanon), Easter and the Christian festival of Saint Elias (in Mount Carmel).[216][217]
Before 2011, more than 55,000 Christians lived in
Druze constitute one third of the residents of
In 2021 the largest Druze communities outside the
The early Druze migrants to Venezuela tended to mix well with the local population, and some Druze converted to
In Syria
In Syria, most Druze live in the As-Suwayda Governorate, the only governorate in Syria that has a Druze majority. In the 1980s Druze made up 87.6% of the population, Christians (mostly Greek Orthodox) 11% and Sunni Muslims 2%.[225] In 2010, the As-Suwayda governorate has a population of about 375,000 inhabitants, Druze made up 90%, Christians 7% and Sunni Muslims 3%.[14] Due to low birth and high emigration rates, Christians proportion in As-Suwayda had declined.[14]
The
The relationship between the Druze and Christians in
-
Christian clerics in As-Suwayda
-
A joint Christian and Druze celebration in As-Suwayda
-
Christian and Druze women light candles in St. George's Cathedral, As-Suwayda
In Lebanon
The relationship between the Druze and Christians in Lebanon has been characterized by
Druze and Christians in Lebanon celebrate each other's births, weddings, funerals, and celebrations such as
Historically Druzes, by large, sent their children to
Before and during the
-
The restoration of the Church of St. Elijah in Baakleen was sponsored by Walid Jumblatt in 2002
-
Our Lady El-Derr Maronite Church in Moukhtara, the stronghold of the Druze Jumblatt family
-
Christian and Druze clergy fromChouf
In Israel
The relationship between the Druze and Christians in Israel has been characterized by harmony and peaceful coexistence,[243] and they lives in peace and friendship together.[216] With the exception of rare clashes, including acts of violence by the Druze against Christians in 2005 in the town of Maghar.[213] Druze and Christians in Israel celebrate each other's births, weddings, funerals, and celebrations such as the Christian festival of Mar Ilyas (Saint Elias) in Haifa.[217]
Contact between Christians (members of the Maronite, Eastern Orthodox, Melkite, and other churches) and the Unitarian Druze led to the presence of mixed villages and towns in Galilee region, Mount Carmel, and the Israeli-occupied portion of the Golan Heights.[213] This includes Abu Snan, Daliyat al-Karmel, Ein Qiniyye, Hurfeish, Isfiya, Kafr Yasif, Kisra-Sumei, Majdal Shams, Maghar, Peki'in, Rameh and Shefa-Amr,[213] where more than 82,000 Druze and 30,000 Christians live together in this mixed villages and towns.[213] Before Israel's occupation, Christians accounted for 12% of the population of the Golan Heights, and they tend to have a high presentation in science and in the white collar professions.[15] But a few Christians remain of a much larger community that left the area.[15] In 2010 more than 8,000 Christians lived in Druze-majority towns and cities in Israel.[213] While in 2016, more than 2,700 Druze lived in Rameh and Kafr Yasif; a Christian-majority towns located in Galilee region, and more than 12,000 Christians and 9,800 Druze lived Abu Snan and Shefa-Amr which form a Muslim majority.
With the exception of rare clashes, including in 2005 Druze attacked Christians in Maghar after rumors spread that some Christian youths created photo images of Druze girls as nude models and posted them on the internet.[244][245] Christian shops, vehicle, house and the church were vandalized.[244] The clashes forced around 2,000 of the Christians to flee their homes.[246] According to the police investigation, it turns out that a Druze youth had spread lie to his friends about the pictures.[247][248] Dan Ronen the commander of Northern District commander called the violence "a pogrom".[247][245]
According to Jack Khoury the clash in Maghar may be a result of animosity between the wealthier Christian population and the poorer Druze.[246] Since in terms of their socio-economic situation, Arab Christians in Israel have high socio-economic situation and are more similar to the Jewish population than to the Muslim Arab or Druze population.[249] And Arab Christians are one of the most educated groups in Israel.[250][251] Statistically, Arab Christians in Israel have the highest rates of educational attainment among all religious communities.[252]
Many Druze and Muslims attend Christian schools in Israel,[213] because Christian schools are high-performing and among the best schools in the country, and while those schools represent only 4% of the Arab schooling sector, about 34% of Arab university students come from Christian schools,[253] and about 87% of the Israeli Arabs in the high tech sector have been educated in Christian schools.[254][255]
-
Isfiya in Mount Carmel: a Druze-majority town with significant Christian communities
-
Church of St. Mariam Baouardy in Hurfeish, Upper Galilee: a town of mixed population of Druze and Christians
Religious conversion
Conversion to Christianity from Druze faith
By one estimate made by Elisabe Granli from
Converts to Christianity from Druze faith includes: Mohamed Alí Seineldín,[258] Nada Nadim Prouty,[259] Selwa Carmen Showker "Lucky" Roosevelt,[260] and others.
Conversion to Druze faith
The Druze do not accept converts to their faith. In 1043, Baha al-Din al-Muqtana; one of the main leaders of the Druze religion, declared that the sect would no longer accept new adherents, and since that time, proselytism has been prohibited.[261] Marriage outside the Druze faith is forbidden and is strongly discouraged,[262] and if a Druze marries a non-Druze, the Druze could be ostracized and marginalized by their community. Because a non-Druze partner cannot convert to Druze faith, a couple consisting of a Druze and non-Druze partner cannot have Druze children; the religion can only be passed onto a child born to two Druze parents.[263]
Gallery
-
One cave associated with Elijah, on Mount Carmel in Haifa: Venerated by Christians and Druze
-
An outer view of the Druze shrine of Prophet Job in Niha village, Lebanon: Both religions venerate Job
-
Nebi Yehuda (Judah "son of Jacob") grave in Hula Valley
-
The Druze Maqam al-Nabi Yahya (John the Baptist) in As-Suwayda Governorate
-
Druze and Christian clerics in Israel (1962)
See also
Notes
- ^ In the censuses of 1927, 1943 and 1956 Christians accounted for 9%–10% of the Jabal Druze State/as-Suwayda Governorate. In her survey in 1985, historian Robert Brenton Betts noted that this rate had likely declined and that many rural Christians had moved to as-Suwayda city, Damascus or outside of Syria.[228] Localities in the Hauran with Christian pluralities or majorities include the city of Izra and the villages of Jubayb, Namer, Bassir and Tubna in the Daraa Governorate and Aslihah, Anz, Dara, Hit, Khabab, Kharaba, Sama al-Bardan in the as-Suwayda Governorate.[229][230]
References
- ^ a b c d e f Hobby (1985). Near East/South Asia Report. Foreign Broadcast Information Service. p. 53.
the Druzes and the Christians in the Shuf Mountains in the past lived in complete harmony..
- ^ Abulafia, Anna Sapir (23 September 2019). "The Abrahamic religions". bl.uk. London: British Library. Archived from the original on 12 July 2020. Retrieved 9 March 2021.
- ISBN 978-0-8156-5257-1.
- ^ ISBN 9781317931737.
the Druze had been able to live in harmony with the Christian
- ^ ISBN 9789652260499.
.. Europeans who visited the area during this period related that the Druze "love the Christians more than the other believers," and that they "hate the Turks, the Muslims and the Arabs [Bedouin] with an intense hatred.
- ^ a b c Churchill (1862). The Druzes and the Maronites. Montserrat Abbey Library. p. 25.
..the Druzes and Christians lived together in the most perfect harmony and good-will..
- ^ ISBN 9780520087828. Retrieved 2015-04-16.
- ISBN 9780521027007.
the conversion to Christianity of several Muslim and Druze families aided this growth immeasurably
- ^ "Refugee Review Tribunal: What is the attitude of the Druze community toward inter-religious marriages?" (PDF). Refworl. 6 June 2006.
- ^ a b c Mishaqa, p. 23.
- ^ ISBN 978-1-4381-1025-7. Retrieved 2013-05-25.
- ISBN 9780674081055.
So did other amirs, like the originally Druze Abi-llamah family, which also became Maronite
- ^ ISBN 9780817916664.
the Maronites and the Druze, who founded Lebanon in the early eighteenth century.
- ^ a b c d The Druze and Assad: Strategic Bedfellows
- ^ a b c Fadwa N. Kirrish, "Druze Ethnicity in the Golan Heights: The Interface of Religion and Politics," Journal of the Institute of Muslim Minority Affairs 13.1 (1992), 122–135
- ^ "On the Horizon: The Strange World of the Druzes". Commentary Magazine. 20 January 1956.
- ^ ISBN 9780863722493.
- ^ ISBN 9780852295533.
Druze religious beliefs developed out of Isma'ill teachings. Various Jewish, Christian, Gnostic, Neoplatonic, and Iranian elements, however, are combined under a doctrine of strict monotheism.
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They included Jesus, John the Baptist, Moses, and Mohammed—all teachers of monotheism
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- ^ ISBN 9780810868366.
They also cover the lives and teachings of some biblical personages, such as Job, Jethro, Jesus, John, Luke, and others
- ^ Woodhead, Linda (2004). Christianity: A Very Short Introduction. Oxford: Oxford University Press. pp. n.p.
- ^ Olson, The Mosaic of Christian Belief.
- ^ "World's largest religion by population is still Christianity". Pew Research Center. Retrieved 27 February 2019.
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- ^ Lev, David (25 October 2010). "MK Kara: Druze are Descended from Jews". Israel National News. Arutz Sheva. Retrieved 13 April 2011.
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- ^ Rosenfeld, Judy (1952). Ticket to Israel: An Informative Guide. p. 290.
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Most Druze do not consider themselves Muslim. Historically they faced much persecution and keep their religious beliefs secrets.
- ISBN 9780030525964.
Theologically, one would have to conclude that the Druze are not Muslims. They do not accept the five pillars of Islam. In place of these principles the Druze have instituted the seven precepts noted above..
- ^ "Are the Druze People Arabs or Muslims? Deciphering Who They Are". Arab America. 8 August 2018. Retrieved 13 April 2020.
- ^ Lewis, James (2002). The Encyclopedia of Cults, Sects, and New Religions. Prometheus Books. Retrieved 13 May 2015.
- ^ "Druze set to visit Syria". BBC News. 30 August 2004. Retrieved 8 September 2006.
The worldwide population of Druze is put at up to one million, with most living in mountainous regions in Syria, Lebanon, Jordan and Israel.
- ^ ISBN 978-0-7864-1375-1. Retrieved 4 April 2012.
- ^ a b Seabrook, W. B., Adventures in Arabia, Harrap and Sons 1928, (chapters on Druze religion)
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- ^ a b c Cross & Livingstone 2005, Great Schism.
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- ^ a b Makarem, Sami Nasib. The Druze Faith.
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since Elijah was central to Druzism, one may safely argue that the settlement of Druzes on Mount Carmel had partly to do with Elijahʼs story and devotion. Druzes, like some Christians, believe that Elijah came back as John the Baptist
- ^ ISBN 9781936296323.
transmigration of the soul is a Druze tenet, and Druze believe that El Khidr and John the Baptist are one and the same. (Gibbs, 2008) The mythology of Khizr is thought to go back even further than the time of John the Baptist or Elija
- ^ 1Peter 3:18–20
- ^ Matthew 14:1–2
- ^ "Text analysis of Matthew 14:2 with parallel Greek". Biblehub. Archived from the original on 24 August 2019. Retrieved 24 August 2019.
- ^ Rudolf Frieling, Christianity and Reincarnation, Floris Books 2015
- ^ Mark Albrecht, Reincarnation, a Christian Appraisal, InterVarsity Press, 1982
- ^ Lynn A. De Silva, Reincarnation in Buddhist and Christian Thought, Christian Literature Society of Ceylon, 1968
- ^ "Newadvent.org". Newadvent.org. 1 February 1911. Retrieved 6 December 2011.
- ISBN 0-521-28926-2, Cambridge University Press, The Bogomils
- ^ For example Dondaine, Antoine. O.P. Un traite neo-manicheen du XIIIe siecle: Le Liber de duobus principiis, suivi d'un fragment de rituel Cathare (Rome: Institutum Historicum Fratrum Praedicatorum, 1939)
- ^ "Newadvent.org". Newadvent.org. 1 March 1907. Retrieved 6 December 2011.
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- ^ "Incarnation". Encyclopædia Britannica.
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It is obligatory among Jews, Muslims, and Coptic Christians. Catholic, Orthodox, and Protestant Christians do not require circumcision. Starting in the last half of the 19th century, however, circumcision also became common among Christians in Europe and especially in North America.
- ^ Clark, R. Scott (17 September 2012). "Baptism and Circumcision According to Colossians 2:11–12". The Heidelblog. Retrieved 24 December 2020.
- ^ Crowther, Jonathan (1815). A Portraiture of Methodism. p. 224.
- The Catholic Thing. Retrieved 23 December 2020.
- ^ Sicard, Sigvard von (1970). The Lutheran Church on the Coast of Tanzania 1887–1914: With Special Reference to the Evangelical Lutheran Church in Tanzania, Synod of Uzaramo-Uluguru. Gleerup. p. 157.
- ^ "Circumcision protest brought to Florence". Associated Press. March 30, 2008.
However, the practice is still common among Christians in the United States, Oceania, South Korea, the Philippines, the Middle East and Africa. Some Middle Eastern Christians actually view the procedure as a rite of passage.
- ISBN 9780812292510.
Christian theology generally interprets male circumcision to be an Old Testament rule that is no longer an obligation ... though in many countries (especially the United States and Sub-Saharan Africa, but not so much in Europe) it is widely practiced among Christians
- ISBN 9781449648756.
Neonatal circumcision is the general practice among Jews, Christians, and many, but not all Muslims.
- ISBN 9781118665695.
Although it is mostly common and required in male newborns with Moslem or Jewish backgrounds, certain Christian-dominant countries such as the United States also practice it commonly.
- ISBN 9780190272432.
male circumcision is still observed among Ethiopian and Coptic Christians, and circumcision rates are also high today in the Philippines and the US.
- ISBN 9780313336959.
Coptic Christians, Ethiopian Orthodox, and Eritrean Orthodox churches on the other hand, do observe the ordainment, and circumcise their sons anywhere from the first week of life to the first few years.
- ISBN 9780195176322.
Uniformly practiced by Jews, Muslims, and the members of Coptic, Ethiopian, and Eritrean Orthodox Churches, male circumcision remains prevalent in many regions of the world, particularly Africa, South and East Asia, Oceania, and Anglosphere countries.
- ^ "Male circumcision: Global trends and determinants of prevalence, safety and acceptability" (PDF). World Health Organization. 2007. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2015-12-22.
- ISBN 978-0-7876-6612-5. Archivedfrom the original on 2016-01-18.
- ^ "Circumcision". Columbia Encyclopedia. Columbia University Press. 2011. Archived from the original on 2015-09-24.
- ISBN 978-1-118-05396-6. Archivedfrom the original on 18 January 2016.
- ISBN 9780815630975.
Male circumcision is standard practice, by tradition, among the Druze
- ISBN 9781858282480.
Circumcision is not compulsory and has no religious significance.
- ^ a b Dana 2003, p. 56.
- ISBN 9781612345239.
There are many references to the Druze refusal to observe this common Muslim practice, one of the earliest being the rediscoverer of the ruins of Petra, John Burckhardt. "The Druses do not circumcise their children
- ^ "On the Horizon: The Strange World of the Druzes". Commentary Magazine. 20 January 1956.
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- ^ ISBN 9781412981767.
- ^ Gunda, Masiiwa Ragies. "Prediction and Power: Prophets and Prophecy in the Old Testament and Zimbabwean Christianity." Exchange (Leiden, Netherlands) 41.4 (2012): 335-51. Web.
- Harris, Stephen L., Understanding the Bible. Palo Alto: Mayfield. 1985.
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- ^ a b Salman al-Muhammadi
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...Druze believe in seven prophets: Adam, Noah, Abraham, Moses, Jesus, Muhammad, and Muhammad ibn Ismail ad-Darazi..
- ^ McGrath 2006, pp. 4–6.
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- ISBN 978-0-8010-2680-5. Archivedfrom the original on September 10, 2015. Retrieved August 14, 2015.
- ^ Wilhelm, Joseph (1911). "The Nicene Creed". The Catholic Encyclopedia. Vol. 11. Robert Appleton Company. Archived from the original on April 17, 2016. Retrieved April 11, 2016.
- ^ Tabor, James (March 22, 2013). "What the Bible Says About Death, Afterlife, and the Future". UNCC. Archived from the original on August 23, 2016. Retrieved June 13, 2015.
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- ^ ISBN 978-1-903900-36-9.
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Jesus is known in the Druze tradition as the "True Messiah" (al-Masih al-Haq), for he delivered what Druzes view as the true message. He is also referred to as the "Messiah of the Nations" (Masih al-Umam) because he was sent to the world as "Masih of Sins" because he is the one who forgives.
- ISBN 9780429975042.
They further believe that Hamza ibn Ali was a reincarnation of many prophets, including Christ, Plato, Aristotle.
- ISBN 9780691610832.
- ISBN 9781134408542.
...One example of Druze anti—Jewish bias is contained in an epistle ascribed to one of the founders of Druzism, Baha al-Din
- ISBN 9780521794763.
- ^ ISBN 9781351722179.
- ^ ISBN 9781135268121.
- ^ "Elijah's Cave | Haifa, Israel Attractions". Lonely Planet. Retrieved 2022-05-28.
- ^ "Stella Maris". Goisrael.com. Archived from the original on 2016-10-05. Retrieved 2016-12-14.
- ^ ISBN 9780429594496.
- ISBN 9781598846553.
- ^ ISBN 9781442246171.
- ISBN 9781904850014.
the Druze believe that al - Khidr corresponds to St George in Christianity and to the Prophet Yahya in Islam.
- ^ "Elijah's Cave | Haifa, Israel Attractions". Lonely Planet. Retrieved 2020-09-15.
- ^ "Stella Maris". Goisrael.com. Archived from the original on 2016-10-05. Retrieved 2016-12-14.
- ^ "Elijah's Cave on Mount Carmel and its Inscriptions" (PDF).
- ^ Matthew 16:14 & Mark 8:28.
- ^ For John the Baptist as Elijah, see Luke 1:11–17 & Matthew 11:14;17:10–13.
- ISBN 88-209-7210-7)
- Calendar of Saints (Lutheran)
- ^ "Why are Priests Celibate?". Holy Spirit Interactive. 19 August 2010. Archived from the original on 23 July 2011.
- ^ Cheek, John C., New Testament Translation in America, Journal of Biblical Literature, Vol. 72, No. 2 (Jun. 1953), pp. 103–114
- ^ Funk, Robert W. & the Jesus Seminar (1998). The Acts of Jesus: the search for the authentic deeds of Jesus. San Francisco: Harper. "Mark", pp. 51–161.
- ISBN 978-0-385-46992-0.
- ^ "Bible Gateway passage: Matthew 11:14 – New King James Version".
- ^ Bible Malachi 4:5–6
- ^ "Bible Gateway passage: Luke 1:17 – New King James Version". Bible Gateway. Retrieved 16 April 2020.
- ^ "Bible Gateway passage: ΚΑΤΑ ΛΟΥΚΑΝ 1:36 – SBL Greek New Testament".
- ^ "NETBible: Luke 1".
- ^ a b Salibi 2005b, p. 36.
- ISBN 978-90-04-12552-0. Retrieved 17 March 2011.
- ^ Hitti, Philip K., Origins of the Druze People and Religion, CHAPTER V, DRUZE THEOLOGY AND ITS SOURCES, 1928.
- ^ Antoine Isaac, Baron Silvestre de Sacy, Expose de la Religion des Druzes (Paris, 1838; republ. Amsterdam, 1964)
- ^ Traboulsi, Samer., Journal of the American Oriental Society, Article, Les Epitres sacrees des Druzes: Rasa il al-Hikma, volumes 1 et 2, July–Sept, 2009.
- ^ Silvestre de Sacy. Le projet européen d'une science orientaliste, éditions du Cerf, 2014
- ^ public domain: Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Silvestre de Sacy, Antoine Isaac". Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 25 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 119. One or more of the preceding sentences incorporates text from a publication now in the
- OCLC 1200830761.
- ^ BRANCA, PAOLO. “SOME DRUZE ‘CATECHISMS’ IN ITALIAN LIBRARIES.” Quaderni Di Studi Arabi, vol. 15, 1997, pp. 151–64. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/25802822. Accessed 22 Nov. 2023.
- ISBN 0-903983-92-3.
- ^ a b Levi Della Vida 2000, p. 400.
- ^ ISBN 9780884023470.
- ^ a b c d Hitti 1966, p. 21.
- ^ Levi Della Vida 2000, p. 401.
- ^ a b Abu Izzedin 1993, p. 12.
- ISBN 9781538124185.
Lebanon therefore was the distributing center of the Druze people and Wādi - al - Taym was the birthplace of their faith.
- ^ a b Harris 2012, p. 59.
- ISBN 978-0-521-42974-0. Retrieved 13 September 2012.
- ISBN 9780884021162.
- ^ Hamilton Alexander Rosskeen Gibb; Bernard Lewis; Johannes Hendrik Kramers; Charles Pellat; Joseph Schacht (1998). The Encyclopaedia of Islam, Volume 10, Parts 163-178. Brill. pp. 191–2.
- ISBN 9780884023470.
- ISBN 9789069800547.
- ISBN 9781451408126.
The Tanukhids (whose territory spread from southwestern Iraq to southern Syria) were known for their devotion to Saint Thomas...
- ^ Abu Izzedin 1993, p. 127.
- ^ Salibi 1961, p. 81.
- ^ Salibi 1961, pp. 78, 80.
- ^ Shahid 2000, p. 192.
- ^ Abu Izzedin 1993, p. 128.
- ISBN 9780195181111.
- ISBN 9786144451366.
- ^ Yunini, Abu'l-Fath. Dhayl Mir'at Al Zaman (in Arabic).
- ^ Emmett, 1995, p. 101.
- ^ a b Khairallah, Shereen (1996). The Sisters of Men: Lebanese Women in History. Institute for Women Studies in the Arab World. p. 83.
- ^ a b c Stone 2008, p. 88.
- ^ a b Hazran 2014, p. 252.
- ISBN 9781135193713– via Google Books.
- ^ Salibi 1968, p. 84.
- ^ Olsaretti 2008, p. 720, note 2.
- ^ Salibi 1965, p. 750.
- ^ Harris 2012, p. 96.
- ^ Salibi 2005, p. 105.
- ^ Salibi 1965, p. 751.
- ^ Salibi 1968, p. 86.
- ISBN 978-1-86064-912-7. Retrieved 2013-05-25.
- ^ Hazran 2014, p. 255.
- ^ Leeuwen, 1994, p. 62
- ISBN 9781593331825.
- ISBN 9789004094376.
- ISBN 9780674081055.
Soon afterwards, the Shihabi amirs converted to Christianity and identified with the Maronite community.
- ISBN 9780815623656.
turning point in the history of the Shihabis when the Amir Ali al - Shihabi became converted to Christianity and joined the Maronite Church.
- ISBN 9780521027007.
the conversion to Christianity of several Muslim and Druze families aided this growth immeasurably
- ISBN 9781400886869.
the Abillama' amirs, were mostly Christians converted from the Druze faith.
- ISBN 9781438460956.
The Abillamah, by the way, also converted to Christianity when the Metn Mountains came to be densely inhabited by Christians, a second conversion for them, given that they already turned Druze earlier, relinquishing the Sunni religion
- ISBN 9781135759520.
Other earlier converts were the Abillamah Druze Emirs and Harfush Shiite.
- ISBN 9780674081055.
So did other amirs, like the originally Druze Abi-llamah family, which also became Maronite
- ISBN 9780520071964.
namely the emirs of the house of Abul - Lama, used to be Druzes before they converted to Christianity and became Maronites
- ^ "Lebanon". Library of Congress Country Studies. December 1987. Archived from the original on 31 July 2018. Retrieved 14 April 2019.
- ^ ISBN 9780313332197.
some Christians (mostly from the Orthodox faith), as well as Druze, converted to Protestantism...
- ISBN 9781351722179.
This also allowed some Druzes to convert secretly to Christianity...These converts left discreet funeral inscriptions revealing their Christian identity, while sharing the same mausoleum with their Druze ancestors...
- ^ "The Civil War in Syria". The New York Times. 21 July 1860. Retrieved 9 April 2018.
- ^ a b Fawaz, 1994, p. 226.
- ^ a b c d Harris 2012, p. 157.
- ^ "Lebanon - Religious Conflicts". countrystudies.us. Retrieved 26 November 2021. This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the public domain.
- ^ ISBN 9788283480146.
- ^ (PDF) from the original on 18 October 2017. Retrieved 15 August 2016.
- ISBN 9781538120446.
- ^ ISBN 9783643911001.
- ISBN 9781498522755.
- ^ Boueiz Kanaan, Claude. Lebanon 1860–1960: A Century of Myth and Politics. la University of Michigan. p. 127.
- ISBN 978-0-19-829388-0. Archivedfrom the original on 10 March 2021. Retrieved 21 October 2016.
- ISBN 978-0-521-28147-8. Retrieved 2013-06-28.
- ^ ISBN 9781136656804.
- ^ Halabi, Rabah. Citizens of equal duties—Druze identity and the Jewish State (in Hebrew). p. 55.
- ISBN 0-313-32384-4.
- ^ ISBN 9780253004925.
- ^ ISBN 9781317801115.
- ^ a b c d "Christians in Syria's Suwayda discuss history, coexistence with Druze majority". North Press. 18 September 2020.
- ^ ISBN 9780292739819.
- ^ "Sending relief—and a message of inclusion and love—to our Druze sisters and brothers". Los Angeles Times. 6 April 2021.
- ^ ISBN 9780313332197.
Many of the Druze have chosen to deemphasize their ethnic identity, and some have officially converted to Christianity.
- ^ ISBN 9781414448916.
US Druze settled in small towns and kept a low profile, joining Protestant churches (usually Presbyterian or Methodist) and often Americanizing their names..
- ISBN 9781904850014.
The early migrants tended to mix well with the local population in Venezuela. The Eastern Christians, regardless of the long-standing disagreements (to put it lightly) between the Catholic and Eastern Christian faiths, converted quickly, and even the Druze and Muslims converted to Catholicism
- ^ "Tariq Alaiseme [reportedly to be] vice-president of Venezuela" (in Arabic). Aamama. 2013.: Referring governor Tareck El Aissami.
- ISBN 978-0-19-506021-8.
- ^ a b c Sourdel 1971, p. 293.
- ^ Batatu 1999, p. 26
- ^ Betts 1988, p. 60; p. 80, n. 38.
- ^ Heras 2014, p. 22.
- ^ Betts 1988, p. 60, n. 11.
- ^ "How a Damascus suburb turned into a killing zone". The Globe and Mail. 23 April 2013.
- ^ Haber et al. 2013. Quote:1-"We show that religious affiliation had a strong impact on the genomes of the Levantines. In particular, conversion of the region's populations to Islam appears to have introduced major rearrangements in populations' relations through admixture with culturally similar but geographically remote populations, leading to genetic similarities between remarkably distant populations like Jordanians, Moroccans, and Yemenis. Conversely, other populations, like Christians and Druze, became genetically isolated in the new cultural environment. We reconstructed the genetic structure of the Levantines and found that a pre-Islamic expansion Levant was more genetically similar to Europeans than to Middle Easterners."
2-"The predominantly Muslim populations of Syrians, Palestinians and Jordanians cluster on branches with other Muslim populations as distant as Morocco and Yemen."
3-Lebanese Christians and all Druze cluster together, and Lebanese Muslims are extended towards Syrians, Palestinians, and Jordanians, which are close to Saudis and Bedouins." - ISBN 9781351722179.
- ^ Panzac, 1995, p. 381.
- ^ a b Morgenstern, 1966, p. 158.
- ^ ISBN 978-0700702268.
- ISBN 9780520922792.
- ^ a b c d "Refugee Review Tribunal: What is the attitude of the Druze community toward inter-religious marriages?" (PDF). Refworl. 6 June 2006.
- ISBN 9789042026490.
social groups to which she belonged as an upper-class Druze woman married to a Greek Orthodox Christian
- ISBN 978-977-416-054-7.
- ^ جدل حول زواج ابنة جنبلاط من شاب مسيحي (in Arabic)
- ^ "Nasrallah Boutros Sfeir". Meib. May 2003. Archived from the original on 11 June 2003.
- ISBN 9780742540132.
- ^ a b Khoury, Jack (11 February 2005). "Druze-Christian Clashes Cool Off in Maghar". Haaretz.
- ^ a b "Clashes over 'naked women'". News24. 12 February 2005.
- ^ a b "Patriarch and Nuncio to visit village where Druze attacked Christians". Asianews. 2 August 2005.
- ^ a b "Druze teen admits spreading rumor that sparked Maghar riots". Comeandsee. 14 February 2005.
- ^ "Christians flee homes after Druze youths riot". The Guardian. 14 March 2005.
- ^ "Israeli Christians Flourishing in Education but Falling in Number". Terrasanta.net. Archived from the original on 18 October 2017. Retrieved 5 September 2016.
- ^ "Christians in Israel: A minority within a minority". Jewish Telegraphic Agency. Retrieved 4 May 2009.
- ^ "Israel's Christian Awakening". Wall Street Journal. Retrieved 27 December 2013.
- ^ Druckman, Yaron (23 December 2012). "Christians in Israel: Strong in education". Ynetnews. Retrieved 5 September 2016.
- ^ "Demonstration of Christian Schools in Jerusalem – Holy Land Christian Ecumenical Foundation". Hcef.org. 10 September 2015. Retrieved 5 September 2016.
- ^ "With schools starved of funds, Christians question their future in Israel". Middleeasteye.net. Retrieved 5 September 2016.
- ^ "Why Angry Christians in Israel Are Crying Discrimination – Features". Haaretz. Retrieved 5 September 2016.
- ^ a b c Granli, Elisabet (2011). "Religious conversion in Syria : Alawite and Druze believers". University of Oslo.
- ^ "Druze Identity, Religion – Tradition and Apostasy" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 2016-03-04. Retrieved 2020-05-20.
- ^ Irigaray, Juan I. (2009-09-11). "Mohamed Alí Seineldín, ex militar golpista". El Mundo (Spain). Retrieved 2010-06-17.
- ISBN 978-0-230-34124-1.
- ^ "Council of American Ambassdors". Archived from the original on 11 March 2012. Retrieved 3 May 2013.
- ^ Daftary 2007, pp. 188–189.
- ^ "Finding a life partner is hard enough. For those of the Druze faith, their future depends on it". Los Angeles Times. 27 August 2017.
- ^ "Dating Druze: The struggle to find love in a dwindling diaspora". CBC. Retrieved 1 May 2019.
Sources
- Abu Izzedin, Nejla M. (1993) [1984]. The Druzes: A New Study of Their History, Faith, and Society (2nd ed.). Leiden and New York: Brill. ISBN 90-04-09705-8.
- Cross, Frank L.; Livingstone, E.A., eds. (2005). Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-280290-3. Archivedfrom the original on May 15, 2019. Retrieved October 8, 2020.
- ISBN 978-0-521-61636-2.
- Dana, Nissi (2003). The Druze in the Middle East: Their Faith, Leadership, Identity and Status. University of Michigan Press. p. 56. ISBN 9781903900369.
- Harris, William (2012). Lebanon: A History, 600-2011. ISBN 9780195181111.
- Hazran, Yusri (2014). The Druze Community and the Lebanese State: Between Confrontation and Reconciliation. London and New York: Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-72549-1.
- Hitti, Philip K. (1966). The Origins of the Druze People: With Extracts from Their Sacred Writings. AMS Press.
- ISBN 978-90-04-11211-7.
- ISBN 978-1-4051-0899-7. Archivedfrom the original on September 10, 2015. Retrieved August 14, 2015.
- Olsaretti, Alessandro (December 2008). "Political Dynamics in the Rise of Fakhr al-Din, 1590-1633". The International History Review. 30 (4): 709–740. S2CID 153677447.
- JSTOR 4054971.
- OCLC 495469475.
- JSTOR 4056124.
- ISBN 978-1-86064-912-7.
- Salibi, Kamal Suleiman (2005b). The Druze: Realities & Perceptions. University of Michigan Press. ISBN 9781904850069.
- Stone, Christopher (2008). Popular Culture and Nationalism in Lebanon: The Fairouz and Rahbani Nation. Abingdon, Oxon and New York: Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-77273-0.
Further reading
- R. J. Mouawad, Les Maronites. Chrétiens du Liban, Brepols Publishers, Turnhout, 2009, ISBN 978-2-503-53041-3
- Dr. Anis Obeid: The Druze & Their Faith in Tawhid, Syracuse University Press (July 2006). ISBN 0-8156-3097-2.
- Shamai, Shmuel (1990). "Critical Sociology of Education Theory in Practice: The Druze Education in the Golan". British Journal of Sociology of Education. 11 (4): 449–463. .
- Samy Swayd The Druzes: An Annotated Bibliography, Kirkland, Washington: ISES Publications (1998). ISBN 0-9662932-0-7.
- Salibi, Kamal S. (July 1973). "The Secret of the House of Ma'n". International Journal of Middle East Studies. 4 (3): 272–287. S2CID 163020137.
- ISBN 978-90-04-11211-7.