Christianity and Druze

Source: Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia.
Druzes and the Christians in the Shuf Mountains lived in complete harmony.[1]

Christianity and Druze are

Historically the relationship between the

1860 Mount Lebanon civil war.[7] Conversion of Druze to Christianity used to be common practice in the Levant region.[8][9] Over the centuries, a number of the Druze embraced Christianity, such as some of Shihab dynasty members,[10] as well as the Abi-Lamma clan.[11][12]

The Maronite

Maronite-Druze dualism" in Mount Lebanon Mutasarrifate.[13] Contact between Christians (members of the Maronite, Eastern Orthodox, Melkite, and other churches) and the Druze led to the presence of mixed villages and towns in Mount Lebanon, Chouf,[1] Jabal al-Druze,[14] the Galilee region, Mount Carmel, and Golan Heights.[15]

Druze doctrine teaches that Christianity is to be "esteemed and praised" as the Gospel writers are regarded as "carriers of wisdom".[16] The Druze faith incorporates some elements of Christianity,[17][18] in addition to adoption of Christian elements on the Epistles of Wisdom.[19] Both religions revere Jesus,[20][21] John the Baptist,[22][23] Saint George,[24] Elijah,[22] Luke the Evangelist,[23] Job and other common figures.[25] Figures in the Old Testament such as Adam, Noah, Abraham, Moses, and Jethro are considered important prophets of God in the Druze faith, being among the seven prophets who appeared in different periods of history.[20][21]

Religious comparison

life and teachings of Jesus of Nazareth. Its adherents, known as Christians, believe that Jesus is the Christ, whose coming as the Messiah was prophesied in the Old Testament, and chronicled in the New Testament.[26] The primary scripture of Christianity is the Bible.[27] It is the world's largest religion with about 2.4 billion followers.[28]

Muslim and no longer consider themselves Muslim.[37][38][39][40]
The number of Druze people worldwide is between 800,000 and one million, with the vast majority residing in the Levant.[41]

In terms of religious comparison,

transmigration of the soul, contrary to the beliefs of the Druze;[42] on the other hand, reincarnation is a paramount tenet in the Druze faith.[43] Christianity teaches evangelism, often through the establishment of missions, unlike the Druze who do not accept converts to their faith. Marriage outside the Druze faith is rare and is strongly discouraged. Similarities between the Druze and Christians include commonalities in their view of monogamous marriage, as well as the forbidding of divorce and remarriage, in addition to the belief in the oneness of God and theophany.[42] The Druze faith incorporates some elements of Christianity,[17][18]
and other religious beliefs.

Monotheism

created and preserves all things.[44][45][46][47] Christians believe in a monotheistic conception of God, which is both transcendent (wholly independent of, and removed from, the material universe) and immanent (involved in the material universe).[44][45][46][47] Christian teachings on the transcendence, immanence, and involvement of God in the world and his love for humanity exclude the belief that God is of the same substance as the created universe (rejection of pantheism) but accept that God the Son assumed hypostatically united human nature, thus becoming man in a unique event known as "the Incarnation".[44][48][49][50]

The Druze conception of the deity is declared by them to be one of strict and uncompromising unity. The main Druze doctrine states that God is both transcendent and immanent, in which he is above all attributes, but at the same time, he is present.[51] In their desire to maintain a rigid confession of unity, they stripped from God all attributes (tanzīh). In God, there are no attributes distinct from his essence. He is wise, mighty, and just, not by wisdom, might, and justice, but by his own essence. God is "the whole of existence", rather than "above existence" or on his throne, which would make him "limited". There is neither "how", "when", nor "where" about him; he is incomprehensible.[51]

Reincarnation

Elijah Taken Up in a Chariot of Fire. Druze, and some Christians, believe that Elijah came back or reincarnated as John the Baptist.[52][53]

Reincarnation is a paramount tenet in the

duality of the body and the soul and it is impossible for the soul to exist without the body. Therefore, reincarnations occur instantly at one's death. While in the Hindu and Buddhist belief system a soul can be transmitted to any living creature, in the Druze belief system this is not possible and a human soul will only transfer to a human body. Furthermore, souls cannot be divided into different or separate parts and the number of souls existing is finite.[54] A male Druze can be reincarnated only as another male Druze and a female Druze only as another female Druze. A Druze cannot be reincarnated in the body of a non-Druze.[54] The cycle of rebirth is continuous and the only way to escape is through a complete soul purification . When this occurs, the soul is united with the Cosmic Mind and achieves the ultimate goal.[54]

In the major Christian denominations, the concept of reincarnation is not present and it is nowhere explicitly referred to in the Bible. However, the impossibility of a second earthly death is stated by 1 Peter 3:18-20,

Jesus of Nazareth, died once forever for the sins of all the human kind. Matthew 14:1-2[56] mentions that king Herod Antipas took Jesus to be a risen John the Baptist,[57] when introducing the story of John's execution at Herod's orders. Some Christian theologians interpret certain Biblical passages as referring to reincarnation. These passages include the questioning of Jesus as to whether he is Elijah, John the Baptist, Jeremiah, or another prophet (Matthew 16:13–15 and John 1:21–22) and, less clearly (while Elijah was said not to have died, but to have been taken up to heaven), John the Baptist being asked if he is not Elijah (John 1:25).[58][59][60]

Around the 11–12th century in Europe, several reincarnationist movements were persecuted as heresies, through the establishment of the

Bogomils in Bulgaria.[62] Christian sects such as the Bogomils and the Cathars, who professed reincarnation and other gnostic beliefs, were referred to as "Manichaean", and are today sometimes described by scholars as "Neo-Manichaean".[63] As there is no known Manichaean mythology or terminology in the writings of these groups there has been some dispute among historians as to whether these groups truly were descendants of Manichaeism.[64]

Incarnation

Jesus (left) and Al-Ḥākim bi-Amr Allāh (right)

The

Druze faith and the primary author of the Druze manuscripts,[67] he proclaimed that God became flesh, assumed a human nature, and became a man in the form of al-Hakim bi-Amr Allah.[65]

Historian David R. W. Bryer defines the Druzes as ghulat of Isma'ilism, since they exaggerated the cult of the caliph al-Hakim bi-Amr Allah and considered him divine; he also defines the Druzes as a religion that deviated from Islam.[68] He also added that as a result of this deviation, the Druze faith "seems as different from Islam as Islam is from Christianity or Christianity is from Judaism".[66]

The incarnation of

Virgin Mary.[69]

Views on circumcision

Coptic Christian Children wearing traditional circumcision costumes (left) and Preparing for a ritual circumcision to a Druze child (right)

Christianity does not require male

Coptic Orthodox Church, the Ethiopian Orthodox Church and the Eritrean Orthodox Tewahedo Church male circumcision is an established practice,[80][81] and require that their male members undergo circumcision, and it is seen as a rite of passage.[82][83][84][85]

While male

Druze faith: male Druze infants are usually circumcised shortly after birth,[88] however some remain uncircumcised until the age of ten or older.[88] Some Druzes do not circumcise their male children, and refuse to observe this "common Muslim practice".[89]

Perspectives on common figures

Moses takes his leave of Jethro by Jan Victors, c. 1635, from the incident in Exodus 4:18. Jethro (Shuaib) is seated on the left, in red.

Druze doctrine teaches that Christianity is to be "esteemed and praised" as the Gospel writers are regarded as "carriers of wisdom".[90] Both religions revere Jesus,[20][21] John the Baptist,[22][23] Saint George,[91] Elijah,[22] Luke the Evangelist,[25] Job and other common figures.[25] The Druze faith shows influence of Christian monasticism, among other religious practices.[92]

Figures in the

Muslim scholars and the Druze identify Jethro with the prophet Shuaib, also said to come from Midian.[29][95] Shuaib or Jethro of Midian is considered an ancestor of the Druze who revere him as their spiritual founder and chief prophet.[96]

Salman the Persian is honored as a prophet in the Druze faith, and as an incarnation of the monotheistic idea.[97][98] As a practicing Zoroastrian, he dedicated much of his early life to studying to become a magus, though he later became preoccupied with travelling throughout Western Asia to engage in interfaith dialogue with other religious groups. His quests eventually prompted his conversion to Christianity and later his conversion to Islam, which occurred after he met and befriended Muhammad in the city of Yathrib.[99] In 587 he met a Nestorian Christian group and was impressed by them. Against the wishes of his father, he left his family to join them.[100] His family imprisoned him afterwards to prevent him but he escaped.[100]

Perspectives on Jesus

Both faiths give a prominent place to Jesus:[20][21] Jesus is the central figure of Christianity, and in the Druze faith, Jesus is considered an important prophet of God,[20][21] being among the seven prophets who appeared in different periods of history.[101]

Christian

Tomb of Jesus in the Holy Sepulchre church in Jerusalem.

Jesus is the central figure of Christianity.

Johannine writings. These documents outline the key beliefs held by Christians about Jesus, including his divinity, humanity, and earthly life, and that he is the Christ and the Son of God.[106] Despite their many shared beliefs, not all Christian denominations agree on all doctrines, and both major and minor differences on teachings and beliefs have persisted throughout Christianity for centuries.[46]

bodily resurrection,[108][109] an event tied to the Second Coming of Jesus in Christian eschatology.[110] The great majority of Christians worship Jesus as the incarnation of God the Son, the second of three persons of the Trinity. A small minority of Christian denominations reject Trinitarianism
, wholly or partly, as non-scriptural.

Druze Faith

The Druze Maqam al-Masih (Jesus) in As-Suwayda Governorate.

The Druze venerate Jesus "the son of Joseph and Mary" and his four disciples, who wrote the Gospels.[111] According to the Druze manuscripts Jesus is the Greatest Imam and the incarnation of Ultimate Reason (Akl) on earth and the first cosmic principle (Hadd),[111] and regards Jesus and Hamza ibn Ali as the incarnations of one of the five great celestial powers, who form part of their system.[112] Druze doctrines include the beliefs that Jesus was born of a virgin named Mary, performed miracles, and died by crucifixion.[111] Druze doctrines include that Hamza ibn Ali took Jesus down from the cross and allowed him to return to his family, in order to prepare men for the preaching of his religion.[111] In the Druze tradition, Jesus is known under three titles: the True Messiah (al-Masih al-Haq), the Messiah of all Nations (Masih al-Umam), and the Messiah of Sinners. This is due, respectively, to the belief that Jesus delivered the true Gospel message, the belief that he was the Saviour of all nations, and the belief that he offers forgiveness.[113]

Druze believe that Hamza ibn Ali was a reincarnation of Jesus,[114] and that Hamza ibn Ali is the true Messiah, who directed the deeds of the Messiah Jesus "the son of Joseph and Mary", but when Jesus "the son of Joseph and Mary" strayed from the path of the true Messiah, Hamza filled the hearts of the Jews with hatred for him – and for that reason, they crucified him, according to the Druze manuscripts.[111][115] Despite this, Hamza ibn Ali took him down from the cross and allowed him to return to his family, in order to prepare men for the preaching of his religion.[111] In an epistle ascribed to one of the founders of Druzism, Baha al-Din al-Muqtana,[116] probably written sometime between AD 1027 and AD 1042, accused the Jews of crucifying Jesus.[117]

Perspectives on Elijah, John the Baptist, and Saint George

Christian saints favored by the Druze: Saint George (left) and Saint Elijah
(right)

Both religions revere John the Baptist,[22][23] Saint George, and Elijah.[22] Druze, believe that Elijah came back as John the Baptist,[52][53] or as Saint George, since they belief in reincarnation and the transmigration of the soul, Druze believe that El Khidr and John the Baptist and Saint George are one and the same.[53] Elijah is a central figure of Druzism, and he considered patron of the Druze people.[52]

Due to the Christian influnce on the Druze faith, two

Christian saints become the Druze's favorite venerated figures: Saint George and the Prophet Elijah.[118] Thus, in all the villages inhabited by the Druze and Christians in central Mount Lebanon, a Christian church or Druze maqam is dedicated to either the Prophet Elijah or Saint George.[118] According to scholar Ray Jabre Mouawad, the Druze appreciated the two saints for their bravery, Saint George because he confronted the dragon and the Prophet Elijah because he competed with the pagan priests of Baal and won over them.[118] In both cases the explanations provided by Christians are that Druzes were attracted to warrior saints that resemble their own militarized society.[118] The Druze environment influenced in turn the Christians, and Christians living among Druze started to use the same word forsome their churches, calling maqām instead of kanīsah church.[118]

One cave associated with Elijah, Stella Maris Monastery on Mount Carmel in Haifa: venerated by Christians and Druze.[119]

Khader in Arabic.[119] The Druze regard it as holy,[119] and many among them identify Elijah as "el-Khidr
", the green prophet who symbolizes water and life. The cave has been considered by some as miracle-working. Sick people are said to be brought to the Cave in hope that they will be cured. A second grotto, also associated with Elijah, is located nearby, under the altar of the main church of the Stella Maris Monastery, also on Mount Carmel.[121]

Druze Faith

Inside the Druze maqam Al-Khidr in Kafr Yasif, Israel: There is an icon of Saint George; who has been syncretized with the figure of al-Khidr.[122]

Druze tradition honors several "mentors" and "prophets", and Elijah (

Druzism, the settlement of Druze on Mount Carmel had partly to do with Elijah's story and devotion. There are two large Druze towns on the eastern slopes of Mount Carmel: Daliyat al-Karmel and Isfiya.[124] The Druze regard the Cave of Elijah as holy,[119] and identify Elijah as "El-Khidr", the green prophet who symbolizes water and life, a miracle who cures the sick.[119]

Druze, like some Christians, believe that Elijah came back as John the Baptist,[52][53] or as Saint George, since they belief in reincarnation and the transmigration of the soul, Druze believe that El Khidr and John the Baptist are one and the same.[53]

Saint George is described as a prophetic figure in Druze sources;[122] and in some sources he is identified with Elijah or Mar Elias,[122] and in others as al-Khidr.[125] Druze believe that Elijah came back as John the Baptist and as Saint George, and the Druze version of the story of al-khidr was syncretized with the story of Saint George and the Dragon.[122]

Ziyara celebrated in 25 January which is officially recognized in Israel as a public holiday for Druzes, the celebration starts on 24 January and concludes on 25 January, with many religious leaders from all the religions in Israel, and also political leaders (occasionally also the PM), coming to congratulate the Israeli Druze community during their festivities at the Maqam Al-Khidr in Kafr Yasif. Religious leaders or sheikhs from Mount Carmel, the Galilee and the Golan Heights
take the opportunity to discuss religious issues.

The Cave of Elijah is a grotto that appears in the Hebrew Bible, where the prophet Elijah took shelter during a journey into the wilderness (1 Kings 19:8).[126] The exact location of the cave is unknown. There is a "Cave of Elijah" on Mount Carmel approximately 40 m above sea level in Haifa. For centuries it has been a pilgrimage destination for Jewish, Christian, Druze,[119] and Muslim people. Another cave associated with Elijah is located nearby, under the altar of the main church of the Stella Maris Monastery, also on Mount Carmel.[127][128]

Christian

Church of Saint George, Lod
: Venerated by Christians, Muslims, and Druze.

The Christian

4:5.[130] According to accounts in all three of the Synoptic Gospels, Elijah appeared with Moses during the Transfiguration of Jesus
. In
Gregorian Calendar 2 August). He is greatly revered among the Orthodox as a model of the contemplative life. He is also commemorated on the Orthodox liturgical calendar on the Sunday of the Holy Fathers (the Sunday before the Nativity of the Lord
).

John the Baptist is also known as John the Forerunner in Christianity, John the Immerser in some Baptist Christian traditions,[134] He is considered to be a prophet of God by all of these faiths, and is honoured as a saint in many Christian denominations. According to the New Testament, John anticipated a messianic figure greater than himself,[135] and the Gospels portray John as the precursor or forerunner of Jesus,[136] since John announces Jesus' coming and prepares the people for Jesus' ministry. Jesus himself identifies John as "Elijah who is to come",[137] which is a direct reference to the Book of Malachi (Malachi 4:5),[138] that has been confirmed by the angel who announced John's birth to his father, Zechariah.[139] According to the Gospel of Luke, John and Jesus were relatives.[140][141]

Saint George was a

Church of Saint George, Lod
, Israel.

Religious text

Christian elements in the Epistles of Wisdom

The Vatican Library contains some Druze manuscripts.[142]

The

history of religions.[19] The Epistles of Wisdom shows influence of Christian monasticism, among other religious practices.[92]

A Christian

Antoine Isaac, Baron Silvestre de Sacy in Expose de la religion des Druzes.[145][146]

linguist and orientalist,[147] studied the religion of the Druze, and the subject of his last and unfinished work, was the Exposé de la religion des Druzes (2 vols., 1838).[148][149] The Vatican Library contains some Druze manuscripts, and consist above all volumes of the Epistles of Wisdom or Rasa'il al-Hikmah, in copies backing to the 10th and 11th centuries.[150][142]

History

Historically the relationship between the Druze and Christians has been characterized by

According to scholar Pinḥas Artzi of Bar-Ilan University:

"Europeans who visited the area during this period related that the Druze "love the Christians more than the other believers", and that they "hate the Turks, the Muslims and the Arabs [Bedouin] with an intense hatred".[5]

Hasbaya in Wadi al-Taym: a town of mixed population of Druze and Christians.

The Druze faith extended to many areas in the Middle East, but most of the modern Druze can trace their origin to the

Christianized prior to their migration into Lebanon.[152]

Many of the Druze feudal families, whose genealogies have been preserved by the two modern Syrian chroniclers Haydar al-Shihabi and

Crusaders was, according to Haydar al-Shihabi, an Arab tribe from Mesopotamia where it occupied the position of a ruling family and apparently was Christianized.[153]

Wadi al-Taym

Rashaya in Wadi al-Taym: a town of mixed population of Druze and Christians.

Wadi al-Taym is named after the

Monophysite Christianity, like many Bakrites, before the advent of Islam in the 620s–630s.[152]

This valley became one of the first places where the heterodox

For much of the early 12th century, the Wadi al-Taym and the southern

Tanukhids

Mamluk
rule.

The

Battle of Yarmouk. After Yarmouk, their status as foederati ended.[161] They were described as an "autonomous Christian community in Bilad al-Sham" up until the reign of the Abbasid caliph al-Mahdi (r. 775–785), after which they appear as Muslims. Their conversion to Islam is believed to have been forced upon them by al-Mahdi.[162][163] They are reported to have been devoted to Christianity, Thomas the Apostle[164] and monasticism, with many monasteries associated with the tribe.[153]

Epistle 50, one of the

Sunni Muslims and afterward became Druze.[168] Their leaders in the Gharb may have received and embraced the Fatimid Isma'ili da'wa (mission) as early as the late 10th century.[169]

In the 11th century, the

Druze community in Lebanon, when most of them accepted and adopted the new message, due to their leadership's close ties with then Fatimid caliph al-Hakim bi-Amr Allah.[170] In the 14th century, the central parts of Mount Lebanon were described as a Tanukhid stronghold, housing both Druze and Shiite Muslims.[171] Members of the Tanukhids in Mount Lebanon include Al-Sayyid al-Tanukhi, a prominent 15th century Druze theologian and commentator; and Muhammad bin al-Muwaffaq al-Tanukhi, an emir and Shiite Muslim who lived in the 13th century.[172]

Ma'n dynasty

Fakhr ad-Din granted the Franciscans permission to return to Nazareth and the church ruins in 1620.[173]

The Ottomans, through the

Sunni Muslim family that had converted to Christianity.[174] Ma'n dynasty were a family of Druze chiefs of Arab stock based in the rugged Chouf area of southern Mount Lebanon who were politically prominent in the 15th–17th centuries. Deir al-Qamar was the capital and the residence of the Emirate of Mount Lebanon
.

Paul V to Makhlouf,[179] the Pope entrusted Fakhr al-Din with the protection of the Maronite community.[180]

Under Fakhr al-Din's overlordship, Maronite,

Greek Catholic Christians began migrating to the Druze Mountain in large numbers; the devastation wrought on the Druze peasantry during the punitive government campaigns of the 16th century had likely caused a deficit of Druze farm labor for the Druze landowners, which was partly filled by the Christian migrants.[181] Christians were settled in Druze villages by the Druze tribal chiefs in the days of Fakhr al-Din to stimulate agricultural production, centered on silk, and the chiefs donated land to the Maronite Church and monastic institutions to further facilitate Christian settlement. Fakhr al-Din made the first such donation in 1609. Although the Druze chiefs owned much of the Chouf lands on which the silk crop was grown, Christians dominated every other aspect of the silk economy there, including production, financing, brokerage to the markets of Sidon and Beirut and its export to Europe.[182] The Emir's religious tolerance endeared him to the Christians living under his rule.[183] According to Duwayhi:

Under Emir Fakhr al-Din the Christians could raise their heads high. They built churches, rode horses with saddles, wore turbans of fine muslin and belts with precious inlays, and carried jeweled rifles. Missionaries from Europe came and established themselves in Mount Lebanon. This was because his troops were Christians, and his stewards and attendants Maronites.[184]

Baaqlin
in the Chouf.

In Lebanese nationalist narratives,

Maronite condominium that is often portrayed as the embryo of Lebanese statehood and national identity.[185] Nationalist narratives by Lebanese Druze and Maronites agree on Fakhr al-Din's "decisive influence and contribution to Lebanon's history", according to the historian Yusri Hazran, though they differ significantly in determining the Emir's motives and the historic significance of his rule.[176] Druze authors describe him as the ideal ruler who strove to achieve strong domestic unity, build a prosperous economy, and politically free Lebanon from Ottoman oppression. Making the case that the Ma'nids worked toward Lebanon's integration into the Arab regional environment, the Druze authors generally de-emphasize his relations with Europe and portray his drive for autonomy as the first forerunning of the Arab nationalist movement.[186] On the other hand, Maronite authors viewed the legacy of Fakhr al-Din as one of isolation from the Arab–Islamic milieu. Fakhr al-Din himself has been adopted by a number of Maronite nationalists as a member of the religious group, citing the refuge he may have taken with the Khazens in Keserwan during his adolescence, or claiming that he had embraced Christianity at his deathbed.[175] According to the historian Christopher Stone, Fakhr al-Din was utilized by the Rahbani brothers in their Lebanese nationalist play, The Days of Fakhr al-Din, as "a perfect historical predecessor for Lebanon's Christian nationalism of the twentieth century".[175]

Shihab dynasty

Shihab dynasty flag: Many members of the Shihab family converted to Christianity.[10]

The Shihab dynasty was an Arab family whose members served as the paramount tax farmers and local chiefs of Mount Lebanon from the early 18th to mid-19th century, during Ottoman rule. Their reign began in 1697 after the death of the last Ma'nid chief. The family centralized control over Mount Lebanon, destroying the feudal power of the mostly Druze lords and cultivating the Maronite clergy as an alternative power base of the emirate. During Yusuf Shihab's rule, many members of the Shihab family converted to Christianity and Yusuf also began to rely on the support of the Maronite Christians.[187]

On 3 September 1840,

Egypt during his occupation of Syria, but was deposed in 1840 when the Egyptians were driven out by an Ottoman-European alliance, leading soon after to the dissolution of the Shihab emirate. Despite losing territorial control, the family remains influential in modern Lebanon
, with some members having reached high political office.

The "Druze-Christian alliance" during this century was the major factor enabling the

During the nineteenth and twentieth centuries, Protestant missionaries established schools and churches in Druze strongholds, with some Druze converting to Protestant Christianity;[199][200] yet they did not succeed to convert Druze to Christianity en masse.

1860 civil conflict in Mount Lebanon

Left to right: Christian mountain dweller from Zahlé, Christian mountain dweller of Zgharta, and a Lebanese Druze man in traditional attire (1873).

The 1860 civil conflict in Mount Lebanon and Damascus (also called the 1860 Syrian Civil War[201]) was a civil conflict in Mount Lebanon during Ottoman rule in 1860–1861 fought mainly between the local Druze and Christians. Following decisive Druze victories and massacres against the Christians, the conflict spilled over into other parts of Ottoman Syria, particularly Damascus, where thousands of Christian residents (10,0000) were killed by Muslim and Druze militiamen.[202] The fighting precipitated a French-led international military intervention.[202]

Bitter conflicts between Christians and Druzes, which had been simmering under

Bashir Shihab III).[203] The sultan deposed Bashir III on 13 January 1842 and appointed Omar Pasha as governor of Mount Lebanon. Representatives of the European powers proposed to the sultan that Mount Lebanon be partitioned into Christian and Druze sections. On 7 December 1842, the sultan adopted the proposal and asked the governor of Damascus to divide the region into two districts: a northern district under a Christian deputy governor and a southern district under a Druze deputy governor. The arrangement came to be known as the "Double Qaimaqamate". Both officials were to be responsible to the governor of Sidon, who resided in Beirut. The Beirut-Damascus highway was the dividing line between the two districts.[203][204]

While the Ottoman authorities pursued a divide-and-rule strategy, various European powers established alliances with the various religious groups in the region. The French established an alliance with the Lebanese Christians, while the Druze formalized an alliance with the British, allowing them to send Protestant missionaries into the region.[203] The increasing tensions led to an outbreak of conflict between Christians and Druzes as early as May 1845. Consequently, the European great powers requested for the Ottoman sultan to establish order in Lebanon, and he attempted to do so by establishing a new council in each of the districts. Composed of members of the various religious communities, the councils were intended to assist the deputy governor.[203]

Economic and demographic factors also played a role in undermining the peaceful coexistence of the Druze and Christian in this period, the

Arab World,[206] and they created a growing demand for Western-style education in law, medicine, science, engineering, and finance, and for the greater opportunities for wealth.[206]

Maronite-Druze dualism in Mount Lebanon Mutasarrifate

Left to right: Christian woman from Zahlé, Lebanese Druze woman, and a Christian woman from Zgharta (1873).

After fierce fighting erupted between the Druze and Maronite populations in the Mount Lebanon region in 1860.

silk trade, through the development of a Maronite bourgeoisie class.[209]

In 1870 many

Saint Joseph University and a flowering of literary and political activity associated with the attempts to liberalize the Ottoman Empire.[208] Late in the century there was a short Druze uprising over the extremely harsh government and high taxation rates, but there was far less of the violence that had scalded the area earlier in the century. The total population in 1895 was estimated as 399,530, with 30,422 (7.8%) Muslims, 49,812 (12.5%) Druze and 319,296 (79.9%) Christians.[212]

Modern history

Pope Francis and Mowafaq Tarif (spiritual leader of the Druze in Israel).

The Maronite

ethnoreligious groups,.[215]

The relationship between the Druze and Christians in Syria, Lebanon and Israel has been characterized by harmony and peaceful coexistence, and they lived in the Chuf Mountains in the past in complete harmony.[4] Druze and Christians in Syria, Lebanon and Israel celebrate each other's births, weddings, funerals, and celebrations such as Christmas, Maundy Thursday (in Lebanon), Easter and the Christian festival of Saint Elias (in Mount Carmel).[216][217]

Before 2011, more than 55,000 Christians lived in

Greek Orthodox Church of Jerusalem, and Maronites) lived in Druze-majority towns and cities in Israel.[213]

Druze and Christian clerics in Israel (1962).

Druze constitute one third of the residents of

Rachaya District, and more than a quarter of the residents of Chouf District (Chouf is the heartland of the Lebanese Druze community) and the Matn District, and a significant minority in Marjeyoun District. While Christians constitute about 40% of the residents of Chouf District, and about a quarter of residents of Rashaya District, and a majority in Matn District and Marjeyoun District.[219] Baabda District and Hasbaya District
has mostly had a Christian and Druze population.

In 2021 the largest Druze communities outside the

The early Druze migrants to Venezuela tended to mix well with the local population, and some Druze converted to

Catholicism.[223] On the other hand, most of them maintained their strong identity through Druze Arab identity and Druze values. A former vice president Tareck El Aissami is Druze, showing the small group's influence in this predominantly Catholic country.[224]

In Syria

Orthodox Easter in As-Suwayda.

In Syria, most Druze live in the As-Suwayda Governorate, the only governorate in Syria that has a Druze majority. In the 1980s Druze made up 87.6% of the population, Christians (mostly Greek Orthodox) 11% and Sunni Muslims 2%.[225] In 2010, the As-Suwayda governorate has a population of about 375,000 inhabitants, Druze made up 90%, Christians 7% and Sunni Muslims 3%.[14] Due to low birth and high emigration rates, Christians proportion in As-Suwayda had declined.[14]

The

Arab tribe).[226] According to the historian Kamal al-Shofani "Christians inhabited the region before the Druze, and some of them came to Jabal al-Druze (Mountain of the Druze) at the end of the 17th century, fleeing Ottoman oppression".[218]

The relationship between the Druze and Christians in

Latin Catholic) lived in As-Suwayda Governorate before 2011,[218] and they have several ancient churches. Outside As-Suwayda Governorate Christians and Druze lives and share some mixed villages and towns such as Jaramana, Sahnaya and Jdeidat Artouz.[231]

  • Druze and Christian clerics in As-Suwayda
    Christian clerics in As-Suwayda
  • A joint Christian and Druze celebration in As-Suwayda
    A joint Christian and Druze celebration in As-Suwayda
  • Christian and Druze women light candles in St. George's Cathedral, As-Suwayda
    Christian and Druze women light candles in St. George's Cathedral, As-Suwayda

In Lebanon

Saint George Orthodox Church in Aley: It can be claimed to be the city with the largest Druze population in the world.

Islamic world.[232] The Druzite and Maronite community in Lebanon played an important role in the formation of the modern state of Lebanon.[13] Contact between Christians (members of the Maronite, Eastern Orthodox, Melkite, and other churches) and the Unitarian Druze led to the presence of mixed villages and towns in Mount Lebanon (Aley District, Baabda District, and Chouf District), Rashaya District, Hasbaya, Matn District, and Marjeyoun District.[219]

The relationship between the Druze and Christians in Lebanon has been characterized by

saints, and use of common words to designate God, the traces of which are discovered in the palaces and mausoleums of Druze lords, as well as in Maronite and Greek Orthodox churches.[233]

Druze and Christians in Lebanon celebrate each other's births, weddings, funerals, and celebrations such as

Christians and Druze in Lebanon.[235] The baptism of children in accordance with Christian custom was usually in large, well-known Lebanese Druze families.[236]

Saint Charbel shrine: venerated by Christians, Muslims and Druze.[236]

Historically Druzes, by large, sent their children to

Catholic schools and universities (such as Notre Dame University–Louaize) in Lebanon, Christian and Druze students study and socialise together.[238] Marriage outside the Druze faith is rare and is strongly discouraged, and Druze can face serious social consequences if he or she converts to another faith to marry a non-Druze. According to Simon Haddad of Notre Dame University–Louaize "if a Druze marries a Christian or Muslim, they could both be ostracized and marginalized by their community, and this could have very serious consequences if the couple works in town".[238] While according to United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees report: "Conversely, a source contacted by the Research Directorate of Canada’s Immigration and Refugee Board in September 1998 advised that "there would be no problem for a mixed Druze/Orthodox Christian couple to live a normal life in Lebanon today"".[238] Prominent mixed Christian-Druze marriage in Lebanon includes: Journalist Ghassan Tueni (Greek Orthodox) and Nadia Mohammad Ali Hamade (Druze),[239] singer Yuri Mraqqadi (Christian) and Olfat Munther (Druze),[240] and the daughter of the Lebanese Druze politician Walid Jumblatt, Dalia Jumblatt who is currently married to Joey Pierre El Daher (son of Pierre El Daher, Christian Maronite).[241]

Before and during the

Mukhtara, the ancestral stronghold of Druze leader Walid Jumblatt. The tumultuous reception that Sfeir received not only signified a historic reconciliation between Maronites and Druze, who fought a war in 1983–1984, but underscored the fact that the banner of Lebanese sovereignty had broad multi-confessional appeal[242] and was a cornerstone for the Cedar Revolution
in 2005.

In Israel

Druze and Christian clerics in Israel.

The relationship between the Druze and Christians in Israel has been characterized by harmony and peaceful coexistence,[243] and they lives in peace and friendship together.[216] With the exception of rare clashes, including acts of violence by the Druze against Christians in 2005 in the town of Maghar.[213] Druze and Christians in Israel celebrate each other's births, weddings, funerals, and celebrations such as the Christian festival of Mar Ilyas (Saint Elias) in Haifa.[217]

Contact between Christians (members of the Maronite, Eastern Orthodox, Melkite, and other churches) and the Unitarian Druze led to the presence of mixed villages and towns in Galilee region, Mount Carmel, and the Israeli-occupied portion of the Golan Heights.[213] This includes Abu Snan, Daliyat al-Karmel, Ein Qiniyye, Hurfeish, Isfiya, Kafr Yasif, Kisra-Sumei, Majdal Shams, Maghar, Peki'in, Rameh and Shefa-Amr,[213] where more than 82,000 Druze and 30,000 Christians live together in this mixed villages and towns.[213] Before Israel's occupation, Christians accounted for 12% of the population of the Golan Heights, and they tend to have a high presentation in science and in the white collar professions.[15] But a few Christians remain of a much larger community that left the area.[15] In 2010 more than 8,000 Christians lived in Druze-majority towns and cities in Israel.[213] While in 2016, more than 2,700 Druze lived in Rameh and Kafr Yasif; a Christian-majority towns located in Galilee region, and more than 12,000 Christians and 9,800 Druze lived Abu Snan and Shefa-Amr which form a Muslim majority.

Carmelite Monastery in Daliyat al-Karmel
: The largest Druze town in Israel.

With the exception of rare clashes, including in 2005 Druze attacked Christians in Maghar after rumors spread that some Christian youths created photo images of Druze girls as nude models and posted them on the internet.[244][245] Christian shops, vehicle, house and the church were vandalized.[244] The clashes forced around 2,000 of the Christians to flee their homes.[246] According to the police investigation, it turns out that a Druze youth had spread lie to his friends about the pictures.[247][248] Dan Ronen the commander of Northern District commander called the violence "a pogrom".[247][245]

According to Jack Khoury the clash in Maghar may be a result of animosity between the wealthier Christian population and the poorer Druze.[246] Since in terms of their socio-economic situation, Arab Christians in Israel have high socio-economic situation and are more similar to the Jewish population than to the Muslim Arab or Druze population.[249] And Arab Christians are one of the most educated groups in Israel.[250][251] Statistically, Arab Christians in Israel have the highest rates of educational attainment among all religious communities.[252]

Many Druze and Muslims attend Christian schools in Israel,[213] because Christian schools are high-performing and among the best schools in the country, and while those schools represent only 4% of the Arab schooling sector, about 34% of Arab university students come from Christian schools,[253] and about 87% of the Israeli Arabs in the high tech sector have been educated in Christian schools.[254][255]

Religious conversion

Conversion to Christianity from Druze faith

Beiteddine Palace in Chouf: Over the centuries, a number of prominent Druze clans embraced Christianity, such as the Abi-Lamma clan.[11]

Methodist Churches.[221][222] In the period of Egyptian rule in the Levant in the 1830s, many Druze converted to Christianity to avoid enlistment into the Egyptian army.[236] The baptism of children in accordance with Christian custom was usual in large, well-known Lebanese Druze families,[236] according to historian Aharon Layish there is also explicit evidence of Druzes in Lebanon under the Ottoman rule were posing Christians for practical reasons.[236]

By one estimate made by Elisabe Granli from

Converts to Christianity from Druze faith includes: Mohamed Alí Seineldín,[258] Nada Nadim Prouty,[259] Selwa Carmen Showker "Lucky" Roosevelt,[260] and others.

Conversion to Druze faith

The Druze do not accept converts to their faith. In 1043, Baha al-Din al-Muqtana; one of the main leaders of the Druze religion, declared that the sect would no longer accept new adherents, and since that time, proselytism has been prohibited.[261] Marriage outside the Druze faith is forbidden and is strongly discouraged,[262] and if a Druze marries a non-Druze, the Druze could be ostracized and marginalized by their community. Because a non-Druze partner cannot convert to Druze faith, a couple consisting of a Druze and non-Druze partner cannot have Druze children; the religion can only be passed onto a child born to two Druze parents.[263]

Gallery

See also

Notes

  1. ^ In the censuses of 1927, 1943 and 1956 Christians accounted for 9%–10% of the Jabal Druze State/as-Suwayda Governorate. In her survey in 1985, historian Robert Brenton Betts noted that this rate had likely declined and that many rural Christians had moved to as-Suwayda city, Damascus or outside of Syria.[228] Localities in the Hauran with Christian pluralities or majorities include the city of Izra and the villages of Jubayb, Namer, Bassir and Tubna in the Daraa Governorate and Aslihah, Anz, Dara, Hit, Khabab, Kharaba, Sama al-Bardan in the as-Suwayda Governorate.[229][230]

References

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  76. . Christian theology generally interprets male circumcision to be an Old Testament rule that is no longer an obligation ... though in many countries (especially the United States and Sub-Saharan Africa, but not so much in Europe) it is widely practiced among Christians
  77. . Neonatal circumcision is the general practice among Jews, Christians, and many, but not all Muslims.
  78. . Although it is mostly common and required in male newborns with Moslem or Jewish backgrounds, certain Christian-dominant countries such as the United States also practice it commonly.
  79. . male circumcision is still observed among Ethiopian and Coptic Christians, and circumcision rates are also high today in the Philippines and the US.
  80. . Coptic Christians, Ethiopian Orthodox, and Eritrean Orthodox churches on the other hand, do observe the ordainment, and circumcise their sons anywhere from the first week of life to the first few years.
  81. . Uniformly practiced by Jews, Muslims, and the members of Coptic, Ethiopian, and Eritrean Orthodox Churches, male circumcision remains prevalent in many regions of the world, particularly Africa, South and East Asia, Oceania, and Anglosphere countries.
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  86. . Male circumcision is standard practice, by tradition, among the Druze
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  114. . They further believe that Hamza ibn Ali was a reincarnation of many prophets, including Christ, Plato, Aristotle.
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  164. . The Tanukhids (whose territory spread from southwestern Iraq to southern Syria) were known for their devotion to Saint Thomas...
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  190. . Soon afterwards, the Shihabi amirs converted to Christianity and identified with the Maronite community.
  191. . turning point in the history of the Shihabis when the Amir Ali al - Shihabi became converted to Christianity and joined the Maronite Church.
  192. . the conversion to Christianity of several Muslim and Druze families aided this growth immeasurably
  193. . the Abillama' amirs, were mostly Christians converted from the Druze faith.
  194. . The Abillamah, by the way, also converted to Christianity when the Metn Mountains came to be densely inhabited by Christians, a second conversion for them, given that they already turned Druze earlier, relinquishing the Sunni religion
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  222. ^ . US Druze settled in small towns and kept a low profile, joining Protestant churches (usually Presbyterian or Methodist) and often Americanizing their names..
  223. . The early migrants tended to mix well with the local population in Venezuela. The Eastern Christians, regardless of the long-standing disagreements (to put it lightly) between the Catholic and Eastern Christian faiths, converted quickly, and even the Druze and Muslims converted to Catholicism
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    2-"The predominantly Muslim populations of Syrians, Palestinians and Jordanians cluster on branches with other Muslim populations as distant as Morocco and Yemen."
    3-Lebanese Christians and all Druze cluster together, and Lebanese Muslims are extended towards Syrians, Palestinians, and Jordanians, which are close to Saudis and Bedouins."
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Further reading