Christianity and violence
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Bible
The Bible contains several texts which encourage, command, condemn, reward, punish, regulate and describe acts of violence.[10][11]
Leigh Gibson[who?] and Shelly Matthews, associate professor of religion at Furman University,[12] write that some scholars, such as René Girard, "lift up the New Testament as somehow containing the antidote for Old Testament violence". According to John Gager, such an analysis risks advocating the views of the heresiarch Marcion of Sinope (c. 85–160), who made a distinction between the God of the Old Testament responsible for violence and the God of mercy found in the New Testament.[13]
Mahatma Gandhi embraced the concept of nonviolence which he had found in both Indian Religions and the New Testament (e.g. Sermon on the Mount), which he then utilized in his strategy for social and political struggles.[14]
Christian violence
J. Denny Weaver, Professor Emeritus of Religion at Bluffton University, suggests that there are numerous evolving views on violence and nonviolence throughout the history of Christian theology.[15] According to the view of many historians, the Constantinian shift turned Christianity from a persecuted into a persecuting religion.[16]
The statement attributed to Jesus "
Higher law has been used to justify violence by Christians.[20]
Historically, according to René Girard, many Christians embraced violence when it became the
Wars
Attitudes towards the military before Constantine
The study of Christian participation in military service in the pre-Constantinian era has been highly contested and has generated a great deal of literature.[22][23]: 4
Through most of the twentieth century, a consensus was formed around Adolf von Harnack's view that the early church was pacifist, that during the second and third centuries, a growing accommodation of military service occurred, and by the time of Constantine, a just war ethic had arisen.[23]: 4 [24][25]
This consensus was challenged mostly by the work of John Helgeland[26] in the 1970s and 1980s. He said that most of the early Christians opposed military service because they refused to practice the Roman religion and they also refused to perform the rituals of the Roman army, not because they were against killing.[22][23]: 5 [27] Helgeland also stated that there is a diversity of voices in the written literature, as well as evidence of a diversity of practices by Christians.[23]: 5 George Kalantzis, Professor of Theology at Wheaton College,[28] sided with Harnack in the debate writing that "literary evidence confirms the very strong internal coherence of the Church's non-violent stance for the first three centuries."[23]: 7
David Hunter has concluded that a "new consensus" has emerged and it includes aspects of Helgeland's and Harnack's views. Hunter suggests that the early Christians based their opposition to military service upon both their "aboherrence of Roman army religion" (Helgeland's view) and their opposition to bloodshed (Harnack's view). Hunter notes that there is evidence that by the 2nd century Christian practices had started to diverge from the theological principles espoused in early Christian literature. Hunter's third point of the "new consensus" is the assertion that the just war theory reflects at least one pre-Constantinian view. Finally, to these three points, Kreider added that Christian attitudes towards violence were likely varied in different geographical locations, pointing out that pro-militarist views were stronger in border areas then they were in "heartland" areas which were more strongly aligned with the Empire.[23]: 6
There is little evidence concerning the extent of Christian participation in the military; generalizations are usually speculation.[29][30] A few gravestones of Christian soldiers have been found.[31][30]
Just war
Just war theory is a doctrine of military ethics of Roman philosophical and Catholic origin[32][33] studied by moral theologians, ethicists, and international policy makers, that holds that a conflict can and ought to meet the criteria of philosophical, religious or political justice, provided it follows certain conditions.
The concept of justification for war under certain conditions goes back at least to Roman and Greek thinkers such as Cicero and Plato.[3] However its importance is connected to Christian medieval theory beginning from Augustine of Hippo and Thomas Aquinas.[34] According to Jared Diamond, Augustine of Hippo played a critical role in delineating Christian thinking about what constitutes a just war, and about how to reconcile Christian teachings of peace with the need for war in certain situations.[35] Partly inspired by Cicero's writings, Augustine held that war could be justified in order to preserve the state, rectify wrongs by neighboring nations, and expand the state if a tyrant will lose power in doing so.[6]
In Ulrich Luz's formulation; "After Constantine, the Christians too had a responsibility for war and peace. Already Celsus asked bitterly whether Christians, by aloofness from society, wanted to increase the political power of wild and lawless barbarians. His question constituted a new actuality; from now on, Christians and churches had to choose between the testimony of the gospel, which included renunciation of violence, and responsible participation in political power, which was understood as an act of love toward the world." Augustine of Hippo's Epistle to Marcellinus (Ep 138) is the most influential example of the "new type of interpretation".[36]
Just war theorists combine both a moral abhorrence towards war with a readiness to accept that war may sometimes be necessary. The criteria of the just war tradition act as an aid to determining whether resorting to arms is morally permissible. Just War theories are attempts "to distinguish between justifiable and unjustifiable uses of organized armed forces"; they attempt "to conceive of how the use of arms might be restrained, made more humane, and ultimately directed towards the aim of establishing lasting peace and justice."[37]
The just war tradition addresses the morality of the use of force in two parts: when it is right to resort to armed force (the concern of
Holy War
In 1095, at the
In the 12th century, Bernard of Clairvaux wrote: "'The knight of Christ may strike with confidence and die yet more confidently; for he serves Christ when he strikes, and saves himself when he falls.... When he inflicts death, it is to Christ's profit, and when he suffers death, it is his own gain."[44]
Jonathan Riley-Smith writes,
The consensus among Christians on the use of violence has changed radically since the crusades were fought. The just war theory prevailing for most of the last two centuries—that violence is an evil which can in certain situations be condoned as the lesser of evils—is relatively young. Although it has inherited some elements (the criteria of legitimate authority, just cause, right intention) from the older war theory that first evolved around a.d. 400, it has rejected two premises that underpinned all medieval just wars, including crusades: first, that violence could be employed on behalf of Christ's intentions for mankind and could even be directly authorized by him; and second, that it was a morally neutral force which drew whatever ethical coloring it had from the intentions of the perpetrators.[45]
Genocidal warfare
The Biblical account of Joshua and the Battle of Jericho was used to justify genocide against Catholics by Oliver Cromwell.[46]: 3 [47] Daniel Chirot, professor of Russian and Eurasian studies at the University of Washington,[48] interprets 1 Samuel 15:1–3 as "the sentiment, so clearly expressed, that because a historical wrong was committed, justice demands genocidal retribution."[46]: 7–8
Inquisition
The Inquisition was a group of institutions within the judicial system of the
In the
During the second half of the 16th century, the
The period of
The legal basis for some inquisitorial activity came from Pope Innocent IV's papal bull Ad extirpanda of 1252, which explicitly authorized (and defined the appropriate circumstances for) the use of torture by the Inquisition for eliciting confessions from heretics.[66] By 1256, inquisitors were given absolution if they used instruments of torture.[67] "The overwhelming majority of sentences seem to have consisted of penances like wearing a cross sewn on one's clothes, going on pilgrimage, etc."[68] When a suspect was convicted of unrepentant heresy, the inquisitorial tribunal was required by law to hand the person over to the secular authorities for final sentencing, at which point a magistrate would determine the penalty, which was usually burning at the stake although the penalty varied based on local law.[69][70] The laws were inclusive of proscriptions against certain religious crimes (heresy, etc.), and the punishments included death by burning, although imprisonment for life or banishment would usually be used. Thus the inquisitors generally knew what would be the fate of anyone so remanded, and cannot be considered to have divorced the means of determining guilt from its effects.[71]
Except for the
Christian terrorism
Christian terrorism comprises terrorist acts that are committed by groups or individuals who use
These interpretations are typically different from the interpretations of established Christian denominations.
Forced conversions
After the
Examples of forced conversion to Christianity include: the
Support of slavery
Early Christianity variously opposed, accepted, or ignored slavery.[81] The early Christian perspectives on slavery were formed in the contexts of Christianity's roots in Judaism, and they were also shaped by the wider culture of the Roman Empire. Both the Old and New Testaments recognize the existence of the institution of slavery.
The earliest surviving Christian teachings about slavery are from
Nearly all Christian leaders before the late 15th century recognised the institution of slavery, within specific Biblical limitations, as being consistent with
Rodney Stark makes the argument in For the Glory of God: How Monotheism Led to Reformations, Science, Witch-Hunts, and the End of Slavery,[89] that Christianity helped to end slavery worldwide, as does Lamin Sanneh in Abolitionists Abroad.[90] These authors point out that Christians who believed that slavery was wrong on the basis of their religious convictions spearheaded abolitionism, and many of the early campaigners for the abolition of slavery were driven by their Christian faith and they were also driven by a desire to realize their view that all people are equal under God.[91]
Modern-day
Violence against Jews
A strain of hostility towards
Over the centuries, these attitudes were reinforced by Christian preaching, art and popular teaching, all of which expressed contempt for Jews.[97]
Modern antisemitism has primarily been described as hatred against Jews as a race, a form of racism, rather than hatred against Jews as a religious group, because its modern expression is rooted in 18th century racial theories, while anti-Judaism is described as hostility towards the Jewish religion, a sentiment which is rooted in but more extreme than criticism of Judaism as a religion, but in Western Christianity, anti-Judaism was transformed into antisemitism during the 12th century.[98]
Christian opposition to violence
Historian Roland Bainton described the early church as pacifist—a period that ended with the accession of Constantine.[99]
In the first few centuries of Christianity, many Christians refused to engage in military service. In fact, there were a number of famous examples of soldiers who became Christians and refused to engage in combat afterwards. They were subsequently executed for their refusal to fight.[100] The commitment to pacifism and the rejection of military service are attributed by Mark J. Allman, professor in the Department of Religious and Theological Studies at Merrimack College,[101] to two principles: "(1) the use of force (violence) was seen as antithetical to Jesus' teachings and service in the Roman military required worship of the emperor as a god which was a form of idolatry."[102]
In the 3rd century, Origen wrote: "Christians could not slay their enemies."[103] Clement of Alexandria wrote: "Above all, Christians are not allowed to correct with violence the delinquencies of sins."[104][105] Tertullian argued forcefully against all forms of violence, considering abortion, warfare and even judicial death penalties to be forms of murder.[106][107]
Pacifist and violence-resisting traditions have continued into contemporary times. One of those religious organizations are Jehovah's Witnesses, they are politically neutral and were one of the only religious groups as a whole to object to enlisting in WW2.
Several
In the 20th century,
In the 21st century, Christian feminist thinkers have drawn attention to their views by opposing violence against women.[113]
See also
- Buddhism and violence
- Christian fascism
- Christian fundamentalism
- Christian Identity
- Christian nationalism
- Christian Nationalist Crusade
- Christian Party (United States, 1930s)
- Christianity and capital punishment
- Christians in the military
- Clerical fascism
- Criticism of Christianity
- God's Army (revolutionary group)
- History of Christian thought on persecution and tolerance
- History of Christianity
- Inquisition
- Iron Guard
- Islam and violence
- Islamic fundamentalism
- Islamism
- Judaism and violence
- Lord's Resistance Army
- Medieval inquisition
- Goa Inquisition
- Mormonism and violence
- Religious hate groups
- Persecution of Christians
- Religious abuse
- Religious discrimination
- Religious intolerance
- Religious nationalism
- Religious persecution
- Religious segregation
- Role of Christianity in civilization
- Religious terrorism
- Religious violence
- Religious war
- Sectarian violence
- Sectarian violence among Christians
- Ustaše
- Witch-hunt
- Witch trials in the early modern period
Notes
- ^ Clouse, Robert G. (1986). War Four Christian views. Winona Lake, Indiana: BMH Books. pp. 12–22.
- ISBN 9781118953426.
- ^ a b "Religion & Ethics – Just War Theory -introduction". BBC. Retrieved 2010-03-16.
- ^ Syse, Henrik (2010). "The Platonic roots of just war doctrine: a reading of Plato's Republic". Diametros. 23: 104–123.
- ISBN 9781118953426.
The purpose of war for Augustine was to preserve "good order". It was a long lasting influence of St. Augustine's teaching on war and violence that shaped mainstream Christianity for 1500 years. Augustine fathered the mainstream Christian view that violence was just a means for political ends...Indeed, Augustine's perspective was not based on the New Testament.
- ^ ISBN 9780313291166.
In 383, Christianity was declared the official religion of the Roman Empire, and Christians who had previously been aloof from political and social responsibility were compelled to rethink their role. Augustine, and his teacher St. Ambrose (340–397), in part inspired by the writings of Cicero (106-43 s.c.), developed just war criteria to show why Christians could consistently serve in the military as armed soldiers, at least in some wars. Although Augustine deplored the ambitions that promoted wars for sovereignty over others, he believed that there were conditions under which it was just to extend an empire... As instances of worthy causes Augustine named preservation of the well-being of the state, punishment of neighbor nations that had refused to make amends for wrongs committed by their subjects, to restore what had been taken unjustly, and even to expand an empire if one was taking land a way from a tyrant (Questions Concerning the Heputteuch. Question 10; and City of God. Book 4, Part 15).
- ISBN 9781405190374.)
Questions such as under which circumstances war may be legitimized, and the rules of war controlled, are the concern of just war theory in the Christian tradition from the writings of St. Augustine in the fourth century, through the scholastics of the Middle Ages (above all, St. Thomas Aquinas) and early modern period (Vitoria, Sua´rez, and Grotius) to modern commentators such as George Weigel and Michael Walzer. The early Christian writers in turn drew upon Roman Law and the writings of Cicero; indeed, in the view of Alex J. Bellamy, they "added little that was substantially new" (Bellamy 2006: 8).
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- ^ Boustan, Ra'anan S. (2010). Violence, Scripture, and Textual Practice in Early Judaism and Christianity. BRILL. p. 3.
- ^ Jenkins, Philip (March 8, 2009). "Dark Passages". Boston Globe. Retrieved 2010-11-26.
the Bible overflows with "texts of terror," to borrow a phrase coined by the American theologian Phyllis Trible. The Bible contains far more verses praising or urging bloodshed than does the Koran, and biblical violence is often far more extreme, and marked by more indiscriminate savagery. … If the founding text shapes the whole religion, then Judaism and Christianity deserve the utmost condemnation as religions of savagery.
- ^ "Shelly Matthews – Brite Divinity School". Retrieved 24 June 2017.
- ^ Gibson, Leigh; Matthews, Shelly (2005). Violence in the New Testament. Continuum International Publishing Group. pp. 1–3.
Marcion's second-century distinction between the God of the Old Testament as responsible for violence and vengeance and the God of the New Testament as a God of mercy and love looms large in the consciousness of the West. [...] More troubling than studies of violence in the Bible that ignore the New Testament are those that lift up the New Testament as somehow containing the antidote for Old Testament violence. This is ultimately the case, for instance, in the work of Girard [...] But as John Gager shows in this volume through his examination of the work of Girard's disciple, Robert Hamerton-Kelly, such a line of thinking has the potential to reinscribe insidiously the prejudices of Marcion.
- ISBN 978-1-57075-766-2. Retrieved 1 April 2017.
- ^ J. Denny Weaver (2001). "Violence in Christian Theology". Cross Currents. Archived from the original on 2012-05-25. Retrieved 2010-10-27.
- ^ see e.g.: John Coffey, Persecution and Toleration on Protestant England 1558–1689, 2000, p.22
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- ^ Smith, Ted (2015). "Religious Violence? Politics of a Higher Law". The Christian Century. 5: 24–27 – via Ebsco host.
- ^ Girard, Rene. The Scapegoat. p. 204.
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- ^ Latourette, Kenneth Scott (1953). A History of Christianity: Beginnings to 1500. Vol. 1. Harper San Francisco, a division of Harper Collins. pp. 242–243.
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- ^ Professor Emeritus of Religious Studies and History at North Dakota State University: "Helgeland – History, Philosophy, and Religious Studies (NDSU)". www.ndsu.edu. Retrieved 29 June 2017.
- ^ Helgeland, John (1979). H. Temporini and W. Haase (ed.). Christians and the Roman Army from Marcus Aurelius to Constantine. Vol. 23. Berlin: De Gruyter. pp. 724–834.
- ^ College, Wheaton. "George Kalantzis – Wheaton". www.wheaton.edu. Archived from the original on 2 September 2017. Retrieved 29 June 2017.
- ^ Leithart, Peter J. (2009). Defending Constantine. Madison, Wisconsin: InterVarsity Press. p. 260.
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- ^ Lazar, Seth (24 June 2017). Zalta, Edward N. (ed.). The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University – via Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy.
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- ^ Ulrich Luz, Matthew in History, Fortress Press, 1994, p26-27
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- ^ "Christian Jihad: The Crusades and Killing in the Name of Christ". Archived from the original on 2008-07-09.
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- ^ Thomas Patrick Murphy, ed. (1976). The holy war. Conference on Medieval and Renaissance Studies, Ohio State University Press.
- ^ Bernard of Clairvaux, In Praise Of The New Knighthood, ca. 1135
- ^ Smith, Jonathan R. "Rethinking the Crusades". Catholic Education Resource Center.
- ^ a b Daniel Chirot. Why Some Wars Become Genocidal and Others Don't (PDF). Jackson School of International Studies, University of Washington. Archived from the original (PDF) on August 17, 2008.
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oliver cromwell joshua ireland.
- ^ "Daniel Chirot – Department of Sociology – University of Washington". soc.washington.edu. Archived from the original on 6 December 2017. Retrieved 25 June 2017.
- ^ Peters, Edward. "Inquisition", p. 54.
- Witch trials in Early Modern Europefor more detail.
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- ^ Chuchiak IV, John F. The Inquisition in New Spain, 1571–1820: A Documentary History Baltimore:Johns Hopkins University Press, 2012, p. 236
- ^ Saraiva, António José (2001), "Introduction to the English edition", The Marrano Factory: The Portuguese Inquisition and Its New Christians 1536–1765, Brill, p. 9.
- ^ Murphy, Cullen (2012). God's Jury. New York: Mariner Books – Houghton, Mifflin, Harcourt. p. 150.
- ^ Zimler, Richard (14 September 2005). "Goa Inquisition was most merciless and cruel". Rediff India Abroad (Interview). Retrieved 10 May 2017.
- ^ Saraiva (2001/1975), The Marrano Factory, p. 107
- ^ Salomon, H. P. and Sassoon, I. S. D., in Saraiva, Antonio Jose. The Marrano Factory. The Portuguese Inquisition and Its New Christians, 1536–1765 (Brill, 2001 reprint/1975 revision), pp. 345–7.
- ISBN 978-88-04-53433-4.
- ^ mostly in the Holy Roman Empire, the British Isles and France, and to some extent in the European colonies in North America; largely excluding the Iberian Peninsula and Italy; "Inquisition Spain and Portugal, obsessed with heresy, ignored the witch craze. In Italy, witch trials were comparatively rare and they did not involve torture and executions." Anne L. Barstow, Witchcraze : a New History of the European Witch Hunts, HarperCollins, 1995.
- ISBN 978-0582438064.
- ISBN 9780333920824.
- ^ Scarre & Callow 2001, p. 12.
- ^ Scarre & Callow 2001, pp. 1, 21.
- ISBN 978-0-313-28391-8. (p.552).
- ^ Hutton 2010, p. 247. Scarre and Callow (2001) put forward 40,000 as an estimate for the number killed.(Scarre & Callow 2001, pp. 1, 21) Levack (2006) came to an estimate of 45,000. Levack, Brian (2006). The Witch Hunt in Early Modern Europe Third Edition. Longman. Page 23. Hutton (2010) estimated that the numbers were between 40,000–50,000,(Hutton 2010, p. 247) Wolfgang Behringer and Lyndal Roper had independently calculated that the number was between 50,000–60,000.(Behringer 2004, p. 149; Roper 2004, pp. 6–7) In an earlier unpublished essay, Hutton counted local estimates, and in areas where estimates were unavailable, he attempted to draw extrapolations from nearby regions with similar demographics and similar attitudes towards witch hunting. "Estimates of Executions (based on Hutton's essay 'Counting the Witch Hunt')"..
- .
- ^ Larissa Tracy, Torture and Brutality in Medieval Literature: Negotiations of National Identity, (Boydell and Brewer Ltd, 2012), 22; "In 1252, Innocent IV licensed the use of torture to obtain evidence from suspects, and by 1256, inquisitors were allowed to absolve each other if they used instruments of torture themselves, rather than relying on lay agents for the purpose...".
- ^ "Internet History Sourcebooks Project". legacy.fordham.edu. Archived from the original on 2016-03-20. Retrieved 2016-05-23.
- ^ Peters writes: "When faced with a convicted heretic who refused to recant, or who relapsed into heresy, the inquisitors were to turn him over to the temporal authorities – the "secular arm" – for animadversio debita, the punishment decreed by local law, usually burning to death." (Peters, Edwards. "Inquisition", p. 67.)
- ISBN 978-1-152-29621-3.
Obstinate heretics, refusing to abjure and return to the Church with due penance, and those who after abjuration relapsed, were to be abandoned to the secular arm for fitting punishment.
- ISBN 978-0-06-081699-5.
- ^ Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith. "Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith". Vatican: Author. Retrieved 10 May 2017.
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- ^ a b c d Robinson, B. A. (2006). "Christianity and slavery". Retrieved 2007-01-03.
- ^ Ephesians 6:5–8
- ^ James Montgomery Boice, Ephesians: An Expositional Commentary (Grand Rapids, MI: Ministry Resources Library, 1988), 218–219.
- ^ Catholic Encyclopedia Slavery and Christianity
- ^ Ostling, Richard N. (2005-09-17). "Human slavery: why was it accepted in the Bible?". Salt Lake City Deseret Morning News. Archived from the originalon 2015-09-24. Retrieved 2007-01-03.
- ^ "Africans and Native Americans", by Jack D. Forbes, p.27
- ^ Curp, T. David. "A Necessary Bondage? When the Church Endorsed Slavery".
- ^ Pagden, Anthony (1997-12-22). "The Slave Trade, Review of Hugh Thomas' Story of the Atlantic Slave Trade". The New Republic.
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- ^ Ostling, Richard N. (2005-09-17). "Human slavery: why was it accepted in the Bible?". Salt Lake City Deseret Morning News. Archived from the original on 2015-09-24. Retrieved 2007-01-03.
- ^ Martin, William. 1996. With God on Our Side: The Rise of the Religious Right in America. New York: Broadway Books.
- ^ Diamond, Sara, 1998. Not by Politics Alone: The Enduring Influence of the Christian Right, New York: Guilford Press, p.213.
- ^ Ortiz, Chris 2007. "Gary North on D. James Kennedy" Archived 2009-10-11 at the Wayback Machine, Chalcedon Blog, 6 September 2007.
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- ^ Philippe Bobichon, "Is Violence intrinsic to Religious Confrontation? The case of Judeo-Christian Controversy, Second to Seventeenth Century" in S. Chandra (dir.), Violence and Non-violence across Times. History, Religion and Culture, Routledge, London and New York, 2018, pp. 33–52 online
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- ^ "No known Christian author from the first centuries approved of Christian participation in battle; citations advocating pacifism are found in → Tertullian, → Origen, Lactantius, and others, and in the testimonies of the martyrs Maximilian and Marcellus, who were executed for refusing to serve in the Roman army. Grounds for opposition to military service included fear of idolatry and the oath of loyalty to Caesar, as well as the basic objection to shedding blood on the battlefield.", Fahlbusch, E., & Bromiley, G. W. (2005). Vol. 4: The encyclopedia of Christianity (2). Grand Rapids, Mich.; Leiden, Netherlands: Wm. B. Eerdmans; Brill.
- ^ "Mark Allman – Merrimack College". www.merrimack.edu.
- ^ Allman, Mark J. (2008). Who Would Jesus Kill?: War, Peace, and the Christian Tradition. Saint Mary's Press.
- ^ Origen (1885) [248]. . Translated by Crombie, Frederick. VII.XXVI..
- ^ Stanton, Rachel (21 January 2007). "The Early Church on Violence". Retrieved 10 May 2017.
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Tertullian rejects all forms of violence, even killing by soldiers or killing by courts of law, any form of abortion, and even attendance at the amphitheatre
- ^ Nicholson, Helen J. (2004). Medieval warfare: theory and practice of war in Europe, 300–1500. Palgrave Macmillan. p. 24.
At the beginning of the third century, Tertullian recorded that some Christians did fight, but he indicated that he did not approve. He argued that God's command not to fight overrode Paul's command to obey the authorities that God had appointed. Tertullian observed that one of the last words of Christ before he was led away to be crucified was his instruction that Simon Peter put away his sword.
- ^ "Members of several small Christian sects who try to literally follow the precepts of Jesus Christ have refused to participate in military service in many nations and they have been willing to suffer the criminal or civil penalties that followed."Encyclopædia Britannica 2004 CD Rom Edition — Pacifism.
- ^ John Paul II (25 March 1995), Evangelium Vitae, retrieved 10 May 2017
- ^ "Orthodoxy and Capital Punishment". Incommunion. 24 February 2008.
- ^ Speicher, Sara and Durnbaugh, Donald F. (2003), Ecumenical Dictionary:Historic Peace Churches
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- ^ Hood, Helen (2003). "Speaking Out and Doing Justice: It's No Longer a Secret but What are the Churches Doing about Overcoming Violence against Women?" (PDF). EBSCO Publishing. pp. 216–225. Archived from the original (PDF) on July 10, 2011. Retrieved May 19, 2010.
References
- Avalos, Hector. Fighting Words. The Origins of Religious Violence. Amherst, NY: Prometheus, 2005.
- Behringer, Wolfgang (2004). Witches and Witch-Hunts. Cambridge: Polity.
- .
- Roper, Lyndal (2004). Witch Craze. New Haven: Yale University Press.
- Schwartz, Regina M. The Curse of Cain: The Violent Legacy of Monotheism. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1998.
Further reading
- Bekkenkamp, Jonneke and Sherwood, Yvonne, ed. Sanctified Aggression. Legacies of Biblical and Postbiblical Vocabularies of Violence. London/New York: T. & T. Clark International, 2003.
- Collins, John J. Does the Bible Justify Violence? Minneapolis: Fortress, 2004.
- Hedges, Chris. 2007. American Fascists: The Christian Right and the War on America. Free Press.
- Hodgson, Natasha R., Amy Fuller, John McCallum, Nicholas Morton (eds.), 2021, Religion and Conflict in Medieval and Early Modern Worlds: Identities, Communities and Authorities. London, Routledge.
- Lea, Henry Charles. 1961. The Inquisition of the Middle Ages. Abridged. New York: Macmillan.
- Kimball, Charles (2013). Jerryson, Michael; Juergensmeyer, Mark; Kitts, Margo (eds.). "Religion and Violence from Christian Theological Perspectives". The Oxford Handbook of Religion and Violence. ISBN 9780199759996.
- King, Karen L. (2013). Jerryson, Michael; Juergensmeyer, Mark; Kitts, Margo (eds.). "Christianity and Torture". The Oxford Handbook of Religion and Violence. ISBN 9780199759996.
- MacMullen, Ramsay, 1989 "Christianizing the Roman Empire: AD 100–400"
- MacMullen, Ramsay, 1997, "Christianity and Paganism in the Fourth to Eighth Centuries"
- Mason, Carol. 2002. Killing for Life: The Apocalyptic Narrative of Pro-Life Politics. Ithaca: Cornell University Press.
- McTernan, Oliver J. 2003. Violence in God's name: religion in an age of conflict. Orbis Books.
- Nakashian, Craig M. Warrior Churchmen of Medieval England, 1000–1250: Theory and Reality. Woodbridge: The Boydell Press, 2016
- Paynter, Helen and Michael Spalione (eds.) (2020). The Bible on Violence: A Thick Description. Sheffield Phoenix Press.
- Thiery, Daniel E. Polluting the Sacred: Violence, Faith and the Civilizing of Parishioners in Late Medieval England. Leiden: Brill, 2009.
- Tyerman, Christopher. 2006. God's War: A New History of the Crusades. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, Belknap.
- Zeskind, Leonard. 1987. The 'Christian Identity' Movement, [booklet]. Atlanta, Georgia: Center for Democratic Renewal/Division of Church and Society, National Council of Churches.
- Steffen, Lloyd (2013). Jerryson, Michael; Juergensmeyer, Mark; Kitts, Margo (eds.). "Religion and Violence in Christian Traditions". The Oxford Handbook of Religion and Violence. ISBN 9780199759996.
- Rodney Stark God's Battalions: The Case for the Crusades, HarperOne, 2010.
External links
- Media related to Christianity and violence at Wikimedia Commons