Christianity in the 11th century

Emperor

This time instead of marching into the middle of the country, he annexed it bit by bit. Eventually, after denying Bulgaria of about a third of its land, the Bulgarians risked everything in one battle in 1014. The Battle of Kleidion was a disaster for the Bulgarians and the Byzantine army captured 15,000 prisoners; 99 out of every 100 was blinded and the 100th was spared one eye to guide the rest back to their homes. The Bulgarians resisted until 1018 when they finally submitted to Basil II's rule.

Following his

• Fulbert of Chartres (died 1028)
• Berengar of Tours (c.999-1088)
• Lanfranc (died 1089)

Monasticism

One of the major developments in monasticism during the 11th century was the height of the

The spread of Christianity was reversed temporarily in Poland, as the pagan reaction in Poland saw many churches and monasteries burned, and priests killed.

Scandinavia

Scandinavia was the last part of Germanic Europe to convert and most resistant. From the

The dominant language of the West was Latin, whilst that of the East was Greek. Soon after the fall of the Western Empire, the number of individuals who spoke both Latin and Greek began to dwindle, and communication between East and West grew much more difficult. With linguistic unity gone, cultural unity began to crumble as well. The two halves of the Church were naturally divided along similar lines; they developed different rites and had different approaches to religious doctrines.^[6]

Papal Supremacy

It is unlawful for any man to bring forward, or to write, or to compose a different (ἑτέραν) Faith as a rival to that established by the holy Fathers assembled with the Holy Ghost in Nicæa. But those who shall dare to compose a different faith, or to introduce or offer it to persons desiring to turn to the acknowledgment of the truth, whether from Heathenism or from Judaism, or from any heresy whatsoever, shall be deposed, if they be bishops or clergymen; bishops from the episcopate and clergymen from the clergy; and if they be laymen, they shall be

anathematized^[8]

Eastern Orthodoxy also observes that this canon of the Council of Ephesus in 431 explicitly prohibited modification of the Nicene Creed drawn up by the First Council of Nicaea in 325 and modified by the second Ecumenical Council in 381. Thus to change "who proceeds from the Father" to "who proceeds from the Father and the Son" (Latin "filioque" added) is rejected by the Orthodox both as illicit and doctrinally incorrect.

In the Orthodox view, the Bishop of Rome (i.e. the Pope) would have universal primacy in a reunited Christendom, as primus inter pares without power of jurisdiction.^[9]

Other points of conflict

Many other issues increased tensions.

• The Western Church's insertion of "Filioque" into the Latin version of the Nicene Creed.
• Disputes in the Balkans, Southern Italy, and Sicily over whether Rome or Constantinople had ecclesiastical jurisdiction.
• As a result of the Muslim conquests of the territories of the patriarchates of Alexandria, Antioch and Jerusalem, only two rival powerful centres of ecclesiastical authority, Constantinople and Rome, remained.^[10]
• Certain liturgical practices in the West that the East believed represented illegitimate innovation: the use of unleavened bread for the Eucharist, for example (see Azymite).
• Celibacy among Western priests (both monastic and parish), as opposed to the Eastern discipline whereby parish priests could be married men.

Mutual excommunication of 1054

The dispute about the authority of Roman bishops reached a climax in 1054, when Michael I Cerularius tried to bolster his position as the "Patriarch of Constantinople", seeming to set himself up as a rival of Pope Leo IX, as the Popes previously had forbidden calling Constantinople a patriarchate. The dispute ended when the Pope's legate, Cardinal Humbert, excommunicated Cerularius and, in exchange, Michael excommunicated the papal legates. It was suspected by the Patriarch that the bull of excommunication, placed on the altar of Hagia Sophia, had been tampered with by Argyros, the commander of Southern Italy, who had a drawn-out controversy with Michael I Cerularius. Although this is commonly viewed as the "Great Schism", historically the event did little to change the relationship between East and West at that time. Michael himself knew that the Pope was a prisoner of the Normans at the time that Humbert arrived, and by the time Michael was excommunicated Pope Leo had already died, voiding the papal legates of authority. Moreover, Michael did not excommunicate the Pope, nor even the Western Church, but only the papal delegation.

Most of the direct causes of the Great Schism, however, are far less grandiose than the famous

, who had spent years in Constantinople, originally as a political prisoner.

Cerularius ordered a letter to be written to the

cardinal-bishop of Silva Candida, who translated the letter into Latin and brought it to the Pope, who ordered a reply to be made to each charge and a defence of papal supremacy

to be laid out in a response.

Michael was convinced to cool the debate and thus attempt to prevent the impending breach. However, Humbert and the Pope made no concessions and the former was sent with legatine powers to the imperial capital to solve the questions raised once and for all. Humbert,

Archbishop of Amalfi arrived in April 1054 and were met with a hostile reception; they stormed out of the palace, leaving the papal response with Michael, who in turn was even more angered by their actions. The patriarch refused to recognise their authority or, practically, their existence.^[11] When Pope Leo died on April 19, 1054, the legates' authority legally ceased, but they effectively ignored this technicality.^[12]

In response to Michael's refusal to address the issues at hand, the legatine mission took the extreme measure of entering the church of the Hagia Sophia during the divine liturgy and placing a Bull of Excommunication (1054) on the altar.

The legates left for Rome two days after issuing the Bull of Excommunication, leaving behind a city near riot. The patriarch had the immense support of the people against the emperor, who had supported the legates to his own detriment. To assuage popular anger, the bull was burnt, and the legates were anathematised. Only the legates were anathematised and, once again, there was no explicit indication that the entire Western church was being anathematised.

In the bull of excommunication issued against Patriarch Michael by the papal legates, one of the reasons cited was the Eastern Church's deletion of the "Filioque" from the original Nicene Creed. In fact, it was the opposite: the Eastern Church did not delete anything. It was the Western Church that added this phrase to the Nicene-Constantinopolitan Creed.^[12]

Nobility

Main article: Peace and Truce of God

Violence was endemic amongst the nobility of the Middle Ages with the Church seeking to prevent ecclesiastical land and the clergy becoming involved. Clerics and peasants were granted immunity from violence by the Peace of God (Pax Dei), fighting was banned on holy days by the Truce of God (Treuga Dei) and the concept of

serfs

of the estate would tend to the labor, while the monk was free to study. The monasteries thus attracted many of the best people in society, and during this period the monasteries were the central storehouses and producers of knowledge.

Crusades

Main article: Crusades

Background

Until the Islamic conquests of the 7th and 8th centuries the Holy Land was part of the

Patriarch of Constantinople

, which had resulted in the Great Schism of 1054. However, Gregory's conflict with the German emperor over the Investiture Controversy meant no crusade materialised. For Gregory's successor, Pope Urban II, a crusade would serve to reunite Christendom, bolster the Papacy, and perhaps bring the East under his control.

Council of Clermont

Main article: Council of Clermont

Seljuk Turks. Urban II called for support from the Western nobility at the Council of Clermont on 27 November 1095, combining the idea of pilgrimage to the Holy Land with that of waging a holy war against infidels. Later that year, at Clermont, Pope Urban II called upon all Christians to join a war against the Turks, promising those who died in the endeavor would receive immediate remission of their sins.^[14]

First Crusade, 1095–1099

Main article: First Crusade

Siege of Maarat in 1098.^[19]

The Crusaders also tried to gain control of the city of Tyre but were defeated by the Muslims. The people of Tyre asked Zahir al-Din Atabek, the leader of Damascus, for help defending their city from the Franks with the promise to surrender Tyre to him. When the Franks were defeated the people of Tyre did not surrender the city, but Zahir al-Din simply said "What I have done I have done only for the sake of God and the Muslims, nor out of desire for wealth and kingdom."^[20]

Aftermath

Main article: Crusader states

After gaining control of Jerusalem the Crusaders created four Crusader states: the Kingdom of Jerusalem, the County of Edessa, the Principality of Antioch and the County of Tripoli.^[17] Initially, Muslims did very little about the Crusader states due to internal conflicts.^[21] In the Kingdom of Jerusalem at most 120,000 Franks (predominantly French-speaking Western Christians) ruled over 350,000 Muslims, Jews, and native Eastern Christians.^[22]

Timeline

11th century Timeline

• 1001 Byzantine emperor Basil II and Fatimid Caliph Al-Hakim bi-Amr Allah execute a treaty guaranteeing the protection of Christian pilgrimage routes in the Middle East
• 1003 - The Hungarian king sends evangelists to Transylvania [2]
• 1004-1014 Caliph Al-Hakim bi-Amr Allah turned violently against his Christian mother and uncles (two of whom were Patriarchs). He persecuted Christians and had over thirty thousand Christian churches destroyed in the Middle East
• 1008 - Sigfrid (or Sigurd), English missionary, baptizes King Olof of Sweden
• 1009 - Bruno of Querfurt is beheaded in Prussia where he had gone as a missionary^[23]
• 1009 Caliph Al-Hakim bi-Amr Allah destroys the Church of the Holy Sepulchre, built over the tomb of Jesus in Jerusalem
• 1012 Antipope Gregory VI, removed by Henry II, Holy Roman Emperor
• 1015 -
  Orthodox faith;^[24] Olaf II Haroldsson becomes the first king of the whole of Norway. Over the next 15 years he would organize Norway's final conversion and its integration into Christian Europe. [3]
• 1030 Battle of Stiklestad, considered victory of Christianity over Norwegian Paganism
• 1045 Sigfrid of Sweden, Benedictine evangelist
• 1046 Council of Sutri, Pope Sylvester III exiled, Pope Gregory VI admitted to buying the Papacy and resigned, Pope Benedict IX resigned, council appointed Pope Clement II
• 1054
  Roman Catholic
  ) churches formalized
• 1058–1059 Antipope Benedict X, defeated in war with Pope Nicholas II and Normans
• 1061–1064 Antipope Honorius II rival of Pope Alexander II
• 1065 Westminster Abbey consecrated
• 1073–1085 Pope Gregory VII, Investiture Controversy with Henry IV, Holy Roman Emperor, proponent of Clerical celibacy, opponent of simony, concubinage, Antipope Clement III
• 1079 Stanislaus of Szczepanów, patron saint of Poland
• 1080 Hospital of Saint John the Baptist founded in Jerusalem by merchants from Amalfi and Salerno - serves as the foundation for the Knights Hospitaller
• 1082 Engelberg Abbey of Switzerland
• 1093–1109
  Atonement
• 1095-1291 Crusades, first called by Pope Urban II at Council of Clermont against the Muslims to reconquer the Holy Land for Christendom
• 1098 Foundation of the reforming monastery of
  Cîteaux, leads to the growth of the Cistercian
  order.

See also

• History of Christianity
• History of the Roman Catholic Church
• History of the Eastern Orthodox Church
• History of Christian theology
• History of Oriental Orthodoxy
• Christianization
• Reconquista
• German Pilgrimage of 1064-1065
• Timeline of Christianity
• Timeline of Christian missions
• Timeline of the Roman Catholic Church
• Chronological list of saints and blesseds in the 11th century

References

1. ISBN 978-0-88402-324-1
   .
2. ISSN 1314-2941
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3. ISBN 0-582-40427-4
4. ^ Cross, F. L., ed. (2005). The Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church. New York: Oxford University Press.
5. ISBN 978-0-913836-58-3
6. ^ "Orthodox Church in the Philippines - East-West Schism 01". Archived from the original on 2012-09-05. Retrieved 2016-06-20.
7. ^ Aristeides Papadakis The Christian East and the Rise of the Papacy, SVS Press, NY, 1994 p.14)
8. Ecumenical Council
   , not the creed as modified by the second Ecumenical Council, and so does not have additions such as "who proceeds from the Father" (ibidem).
9. ^ Emmanuel Clapsis. "Papal primacy". Greek Orthodox Archdiocese of America. Archived from the original on 2008-06-17. Retrieved 2008-10-16.
10. ^ "During the decade following the death of the Prophet Muhammad in 632, his followers captured three of the five 'patriarchates' of the early church – Alexandria, Antioch, and Jerusalem – leaving only Rome and Constantinople, located at opposite ends of the Mediterranean and, eventually, also at opposite ends of the Schism of 1054" (Encyclopædia Britannica Archived 2008-06-04 at the Wayback Machine).
11. ^ Norwich, John J. (1967). The Normans in the South 1016–1130. p. 102.
12. ^ ^{a b} Norwich, John J. (1992). Byzantium, The Apogee. pp. 320–321.
13. ^ Denys Pringle "Architecture in Latin East" in The Oxford History of the Crusades ed. Jonathan Riley-Smith (New York:Oxford University Press,1999) 157
14. ^ Fulcher of Chartres Archived 2009-08-30 at the Wayback Machine, Medieval Sourcebook.
15. ISBN 0-394-40026-7
    .
16. ^ ^{a b} Arab Historians of the Crusades, trans. F. Gabrieli, trans. E. J. Costello. London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1984.
17. ^ ^{a b} Trumpbour, John. "Crusades." In The Oxford Encyclopedia of the Islamic World. , edited by John L. Esposito. Oxford Islamic Studies Online, http://www.oxfordislamicstudies.com/article (accessed February 17, 2008).
18. ISBN 0-19-285364-3
    .
19. ISBN 2-7373-4136-1
20. ^ The Damascus Chronicle of the Crusades, Extracted and translated from the chronicle of Ibn Al-Qalanisi, translated by H.A.R. Gibb (London: Luzac & Co., 1932).
21. ^ "Crusades" In The Islamic World: past and Present. , edited by John L. Esposito. Oxford Islamic Studies Online, http://www.oxfordislamicstudies.com/article (accessed February 17, 2008).
22. ^ Benjamin Z. Kedar, "The Subjected Muslims of the Frankish Levant", in The Crusades: The Essential Readings, ed. Thomas F. Madden, Blackwell, 2002, p.244. Originally published in Muslims Under Latin Rule, 1100–1300, ed. James M. Powell, Princeton University Press, 1990. Kedar quotes his numbers from Joshua Prawer, Histoire du royaume latin de Jérusalem, tr. G. Nahon, Paris, 1969, vol. 1, pp.498, 568-572.
23. ^ Neill, p. 94
24. ^ Tillyrides, Makarios. Adventures in the Unseen: The Silent Witness, Orthodox Research Institute Press, 2004, p. 426

Further reading

• Esler, Philip F. The Early Christian World. Routledge (2004).
  ISBN 0-415-33312-1
  .
• White, L. Michael. From Jesus to Christianity. HarperCollins (2004).
  ISBN 0-06-052655-6
  .
• Freedman, David Noel (Ed). Eerdmans Dictionary of the Bible. Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing (2000).
  ISBN 0-8028-2400-5
  .
• Pelikan, Jaroslav Jan. The Christian Tradition: The Emergence of the Catholic Tradition (100-600). University of Chicago Press (1975).
  ISBN 0-226-65371-4
  .

External links

• Schaff's The Seven Ecumenical Councils

The Middle Ages
Preceded by: Christianity in the 10th century 11th century Followed by: Christianity in the 12th century
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