Two investiture controversies ended in the 12th century, both concerning whether secular or religious authorities could appoint bishops.
One was between the Pope and the
cathedral canons. As a symbol of the compromise, lay authorities invested bishops with their secular authority symbolised by the lance, and ecclesiastical authorities invested bishops with their spiritual authority symbolised by the ring and the staff
.
The second was between King
Concordat of London, 1107, where the king renounced his claim to invest bishops but continued to require an oath of fealty
from them upon their election. This was a partial model for the Concordat of Worms.
Medieval Inquisition
The
Western Catholicism, in particular the Cathars and the Waldensians in southern France and northern Italy. These were the first inquisition movements of many that would follow. The inquisitions in combination with the Albigensian Crusade
were fairly successful in ending heresy.
12th-century France witnessed the widespread growth of Catharism, a
which taught that all matter was evil, accepted suicide and denied the value of Church sacraments.
Rise of universities
Modern western universities have their origins directly in the Medieval Church. They began as cathedral schools, and all students were considered clerics. This was a benefit as it placed the students under ecclesiastical jurisdiction and thus imparted certain legal immunities and protections. The cathedral schools eventually became partially detached from the cathedrals and formed their own institutions, the earliest being the University of Paris (c. 1150), the University of Bologna (1088), and the University of Oxford (1096).
Church architecture
Two new orders of architecture emerged from the Church of this era. The earlier
Basilique Saint-Denis marked a new trend in cathedral building when it utilized Gothic architecture.[1] This style, with its large windows and high, pointed arches, improved lighting and geometric harmony in a manner that was intended to direct the worshiper's mind to God who "orders all things".[1]
Eight new monastic orders were founded in the 12th century, many of them functioning as
Scholasticism comes from the Latin word scholasticus meaning "that [which] belongs to the school"; it was a method of learning taught by the academics (or schoolmen) of medieval universities c.1100–1500. Scholasticism originally began to reconcile the philosophy of the ancient classical philosophers with medieval Christian theology. It is not a philosophy or theology in itself but a tool and method for learning which puts emphasis on dialectical reasoning. The primary purpose of scholasticism was to find the answer to a question or resolve a contradiction. It is most well known in its application in medieval theology but was eventually applied to classical philosophy and many other fields of study.
trivium) in the work of Abelard, and the production by Peter Lombard of a collection of Sentences
or opinions of the Church Fathers and other authorities. Scholasticism proper can be thought of as the kind of theology that emerges when, in the Cathedral schools and their successors, the tools of dialectic are pressed into use to comment upon, explain, and develop the gloss and the sentences.
Rule of Saint Benedict. Rejecting the developments that the Benedictines had undergone, they tried to reproduce the life exactly as it had been in Saint Benedict
's time, indeed in various points they went beyond it in austerity. The most striking feature in the reform was the return to manual labour, and especially to field-work, which became a special characteristic of Cistercian life.
Saint Bernard of Clairvaux, in a medieval illuminated manuscript.
Inspired by Saint Bernard of Clairvaux, the Cistercians became the main force of technological diffusion in medieval Europe. By the end of the 12th century the Cistercian houses numbered 500; in the 13th a hundred more were added; and at its height in the 15th century, the order claimed to have close to 750 houses. Most of these were built in wilderness areas and played a major part in bringing such isolated parts of Europe into economic cultivation.
In the Middle Ages, monasteries conserved and copied ancient manuscripts in their
in the early 12th century over the methods of philosophic ontology led to a schism between the Catholic Orthodox of the School of Notre Dame in Paris and the student body, leading to the establishment of Free Schools and the concept of an autonomous University, soon copied elsewhere in Europe, and this eventually led to the Reformation which dismounted the primacy of the monasteries.
The status of monks as apart from secular life (at least theoretically) also served a social function. Dethroned
There was a less successful wave of crusaders, in which Turks led by Kilij Arslan soundly defeated the Crusaders in three separate battles in a well-managed response to the First Crusade.[4] This is known as the Crusade of 1101 and may be considered an adjunct of the First Crusade.
After a period of relative peace in which Christians and Muslims co-existed in the Holy Land, Muslims conquered the town of Edessa. A new crusade was called for by various preachers, most notably by Bernard of Clairvaux.
French and south German armies, under the Kings
Nur ad-Din Zangi, the main enemy of the Crusaders.[5] On the other side of the Mediterranean, however, the Second Crusade met with great success as a group of northern European Crusaders stopped in Portugal, allied with the Portuguese KingAfonso I of Portugal, and retook Lisbon from the Muslims in 1147.[5]
In the Holy Land by 1150, both the kings of France and Germany had returned to their countries without any result. St. Bernard of Clairvaux, who in his preachings had encouraged the Second Crusade, was upset with the amount of misdirected violence and slaughter of the Jewish population of the Rhineland.[6] North Germans and Danes attacked the Wends during the 1147 Wendish Crusade, which was unsuccessful as well.
In 1187, Saladin, Sultan of Egypt, recaptured Jerusalem, following the Battle of Hattin. After taking Jerusalem back from the Christians, the Muslims spared civilians and for the most part left churches and shrines untouched to be able to collect ransom money from the Franks.[7] Saladin is remembered respectfully in both European and Islamic sources as a man who "always stuck to his promise and was loyal."[8]
The reports of Saladin's victories shocked Europe.
Frederick I, Holy Roman Emperor. Frederick drowned in Cilicia in 1190, leaving an unstable alliance between the English and the French. Before his arrival in the Holy Land, Richard captured the island of Cyprus from the Byzantines in 1191.[5] Cyprus served as a Crusader base for many centuries and remained in Western European hands until the Ottoman Empire conquered the island from Venice in 1571.[5]
After reaching port, Richard the Lionheart promised to leave noncombatants unharmed if the city of
Arsuf, recaptured the port city of Jaffa, and were in sight of Jerusalem.[5] However, Richard did not believe he would be able to hold Jerusalem once it was captured, as the majority of Crusaders would then return to Europe, and the crusade ended without the taking of Jerusalem.[5]
Richard left the following year after negotiating a treaty with Saladin. The treaty allowed unarmed Christian pilgrims to make pilgrimages to the Holy Land (Jerusalem), while it remained under Muslim control, as well as ensured the survival of a new Crusader kingdom based around Acre and other Levantine port cities.
On Richard's way home, his ship was wrecked, and he ended up in Austria, where his enemy Duke Leopold captured him. The duke delivered Richard to Emperor Henry VI, who held the king for ransom. By 1197, Henry felt ready for a crusade, but he died in the same year of malaria. Richard I died during fighting in Europe and never returned to the Holy Land. The Third Crusade is sometimes referred to as the Kings' Crusade.
military orders, and their allies against the pagan peoples of northern Europe around the southern and eastern shores of the Baltic Sea. Swedish and German campaigns against RussianEastern Orthodox Christians are also sometimes considered part of the Northern Crusades.[10][12]
Some of these wars were called crusades during the Middle Ages, but others, including most of the Swedish ones, were first dubbed crusades by 19th century romantic nationalist historians.
The First Swedish Crusade is purely legendary and according to most historians today never took place as described in the legend and did not result in any ties between Finland and Sweden. For the most part, it was made up in the late 13th century to date the Swedish rule in Finland further back in time. No historical record has also survived describing the second one, but it probably did take place and ended up in the concrete conquest of southwestern Finland.
^Hallam, Elizabeth. Chronicles of the Crusades: Eye-Witness Accounts of the wars Between Christianity and Islam. London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson, 1989. p.155
^Esposito, John L. Islam: The Straight Path. Oxford University Press: New York, 2005. pg. 59.
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