Christianity in the 19th century
Characteristic of Christianity in the 19th century were
Modernism in Christian theology
As the more radical implications of the scientific and cultural influences of the Enlightenment began to be felt in the Protestant churches, especially in the 19th century, Liberal Christianity, exemplified especially by numerous theologians in Germany in the 19th century, sought to bring the churches alongside of the broad revolution that modernism represented. In doing so, new critical approaches to the Bible were developed, new attitudes became evident about the role of religion in society, and a new openness to questioning the nearly universally accepted definitions of Christian orthodoxy began to become obvious.
In reaction to these developments, Christian fundamentalism was a movement to reject the radical influences of philosophical humanism, as this was affecting the Christian religion. Especially targeting critical approaches to the interpretation of the Bible and trying to blockade the inroads made into their churches by atheistic scientific assumptions, the fundamentalists began to appear in various denominations as numerous independent movements of resistance to the drift away from historic Christianity. Over time, the Fundamentalist Evangelical movement has divided into two main wings, with the label Fundamentalist following one branch, while Evangelical has become the preferred banner of the more moderate movement. Although both movements primarily originated in the English speaking world, the majority of Evangelicals now live elsewhere in the world.
After the
The 19th century saw the rise of Biblical criticism, new knowledge of religious diversity in other continents, and above all the growth of science. This led many Christians to emphasize the brotherhood, to seeing miracles as myths, and to emphasize a moral approach with religion as lifestyle rather than revealed truth.
Liberal Christianity
Protestant Europe
Historian
Britain
In England, Anglicans emphasized the historically Catholic components of their heritage, as the High Church element reintroduced vestments and incense into their rituals, against the opposition of Low Church evangelicals.
Germany
Two main developments reshaped religion in Germany. Across the land, there was a movement to unite the larger
From the religious point of view of the typical Catholic or Protestant, major changes were underway in terms of a much more personalized religiosity that focused on the individual more than the church or the ceremony. The rationalism of the late 19th century faded away, and there was a new emphasis on the psychology and feeling of the individual, especially in terms of contemplating sinfulness, redemption, and the mysteries and the revelations of Christianity. Pietistic revivals were common among Protestants.
American trends
The main trends in Protestantism included the rapid growth of Methodist and Baptists denominations, and the steady growth among Presbyterians, Congregationalists and Anglicans. After 1830 German Lutherans arrived in large numbers; after 1860 Scandinavian Lutherans arrived. The Pennsylvania Dutch Protestant sects (and Lutherans) grew through high birth rates.
Second Great Awakening
The
In New England, the renewed interest in religion inspired a wave of social activism. In western New York, the spirit of revival encouraged the emergence of the Restoration Movement, the Latter Day Saint movement, Adventism, and the Holiness movement. Especially in the west—at Cane Ridge, Kentucky and in Tennessee—the revival strengthened the Methodists and the Baptists and introduced into America a new form of religious expression—the Scottish camp meeting.
The Second Great Awakening made its way across the frontier territories, fed by intense longing for a prominent place for God in the life of the new nation, a new liberal attitude toward fresh interpretations of the Bible, and a contagious experience of zeal for authentic spirituality. As these revivals spread, they gathered converts to Protestant sects of the time. The revivals eventually moved freely across denominational lines with practically identical results and went farther than ever toward breaking down the allegiances which kept adherents to these denominations loyal to their own. Consequently, the revivals were accompanied by a growing dissatisfaction with Evangelical churches and especially with the doctrine of
Mormonism
The Mormon faith emerged from the Latter Day Saint movement in upstate New York in the 1830s. After several schisms and multiple relocations to escape intense hostility, the largest group, The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (LDS Church), migrated to Utah Territory. They established a theocracy under Brigham Young, and came into conflict with the United States government. It tried to suppress the church because of its polygamy and theocracy. Compromises were finally reached in the 1890s, allowing the church to abandon polygamy and flourish.[12][13]
Adventism
Holiness movement
The Methodists of the 19th century continued the interest in Christian holiness that had been started by their founder,
In 1837, Palmer experienced what she called entire sanctification. She began leading the Tuesday Meeting for the Promotion of Holiness. At first only women attended these meetings, but eventually Methodist bishops and other clergy members began to attend them also. In 1859, she published The Promise of the Father, in which she argued in favor of women in ministry, later to influence
The first distinct "holiness"
In the 1870s, the holiness movement spread to Great Britain, where it was sometimes called the
Third Great Awakening
The
Roman Catholicism
France
The Catholic Church lost all its lands and buildings during the French Revolution, and these were sold off or came under the control of local governments. The more radical elements of the Revolution tried to suppress the church, but Napoleon came to a compromise with the pope in the Concordat of 1801 that restored much of its status. The bishop still ruled his diocese (which was aligned with the new department boundaries), but could only communicate with the pope through the government in Paris. Bishops, priests, nuns and other religious people were paid salaries by the state. All the old religious rites and ceremonies were retained, and the government maintained the religious buildings. The Church was allowed to operate its own seminaries and to some extent local schools as well, although this became a central political issue into the 20th century. Bishops were much less powerful than before, and had no political voice. However, the Catholic Church reinvented itself and put a new emphasis on personal religiosity that gave it a hold on the psychology of the faithful.[16][17]
France remained basically Catholic. The 1872 census counted 36 million people, of whom 35.4 million were listed as Catholics, 600,000 as Protestants, 50,000 as Jews and 80,000 as freethinkers. The Revolution failed to destroy the Catholic Church, and Napoleon's concordat of 1801 restored its status. The return of the Bourbons in 1814 brought back many rich nobles and landowners who supported the Church, seeing it as a bastion of conservatism and monarchism. However the monasteries with their vast land holdings and political power were gone; much of the land had been sold to urban entrepreneurs who lacked historic connections to the land and the peasants.[18]
Few new priests were trained in the 1790–1814 period, and many left the church. The result was that the number of parish clergy plunged from 60,000 in 1790 to 25,000 in 1815, many of them elderly. Entire regions, especially around Paris, were left with few priests. On the other hand, some traditional regions held fast to the faith, led by local nobles and historic families.[18]
The comeback was very slow in the larger cities and industrial areas. With systematic missionary work and a new emphasis on liturgy and devotions to the Virgin Mary, plus support from Napoleon III, there was a comeback. In 1870 there were 56,500 priests, representing a much younger and more dynamic force in the villages and towns, with a thick network of schools, charities and lay organizations.[19] Conservative Catholics held control of the national government, 1820–1830, but most often played secondary political roles or had to fight the assault from republicans, liberals, socialists and seculars.[20][21]
Throughout the lifetime of the Third Republic (1870–1940) there were battles over the status of the Catholic Church. The French clergy and bishops were closely associated with the Monarchists and many of its hierarchy were from noble families. Republicans were based in the anticlerical middle class who saw the Church's alliance with the monarchists as a political threat to republicanism, and a threat to the modern spirit of progress. The Republicans detested the church for its political and class affiliations; for them, the church represented outmoded traditions, superstition and monarchism.[22]
The Republicans were strengthened by Protestant and Jewish support. Numerous laws were passed to weaken the Catholic Church. In 1879, priests were excluded from the administrative committees of hospitals and of boards of charity. In 1880, new measures were directed against the religious congregations. From 1880 to 1890 came the substitution of lay women for nuns in many hospitals. Napoleon's 1801 Concordat continued in operation but in 1881, the government cut off salaries to priests it disliked.[22]
The 1882 school laws of Republican Jules Ferry set up a national system of public schools that taught strict puritanical morality but no religion.[23] For a while privately funded Catholic schools were tolerated. Civil marriage became compulsory, divorce was introduced and chaplains were removed from the army.[24]
When
Deep-rooted suspicions remained on both sides and were inflamed by the
Chaplains were removed from naval and military hospitals (1903–04), and soldiers were ordered not to frequent Catholic clubs (1904). Combes as Prime Minister in 1902, was determined to thoroughly defeat Catholicism. He closed down all parochial schools in France. Then he had parliament reject authorisation of all religious orders. This meant that all fifty four orders were dissolved and about 20,000 members immediately left France, many for Spain.[25]
In
Germany
Among Catholics there was a sharp increase in popular pilgrimages. In 1844 alone, half a million pilgrims made a pilgrimage to the city of Trier in the Rhineland to view the Seamless robe of Jesus, said to be the robe that Jesus wore on the way to his crucifixion. Catholic bishops in Germany had historically been largely independent of Rome, but now the Vatican exerted increasing control, a new "ultramontanism" of Catholics highly loyal to Rome.[27] A sharp controversy broke out in 1837–38 in the largely Catholic Rhineland over the religious education of children of mixed marriages, where the mother was Catholic and the father Protestant. The government passed laws to require that these children always be raised as Protestants, contrary to Napoleonic law that had previously prevailed and allowed the parents to make the decision. It put the Catholic Archbishop under house arrest. In 1840, the new King Frederick William IV sought reconciliation and ended the controversy by agreeing to most of the Catholic demands. However Catholic memories remained deep and led to a sense that Catholics always needed to stick together in the face of an untrustworthy government.[28]
Kulturkampf
After 1870 Chancellor Otto von Bismarck would not tolerate any base of power outside Germany—in Rome—having a say in German affairs. He launched a Kulturkampf ("culture war") against the power of the pope and the Catholic Church in 1873, but only in Prussia. This gained strong support from German liberals, who saw the Catholic Church as the bastion of reaction and their greatest enemy. The Catholic element, in turn, saw in the National-Liberals as its worst enemy and formed the Center Party.[29]
Catholics, although nearly a third of the national population, were seldom allowed to hold major positions in the Imperial government, or the Prussian government. Most of the Kulturkampf was fought out in Prussia, but Imperial Germany passed the Pulpit Law which made it a crime for any cleric to discuss public issues in a way that displeased the government. Nearly all Catholic bishops, clergy, and laymen rejected the legality of the new laws, and were defiant facing the increasingly heavy penalties and imprisonments imposed by Bismarck's government. Historian Anthony Steinhoff reports the casualty totals:
- As of 1878, only three of eight Prussian dioceses still had bishops, some 1,125 of 4,600 parishes were vacant, and nearly 1,800 priests ended up in jail or in exile....Finally, between 1872 and 1878, numerous Catholic newspapers were confiscated, Catholic associations and assemblies were dissolved, and Catholic civil servants were dismissed merely on the pretence of having Ultramontane sympathies.[30]
Bismarck underestimated the resolve of the Catholic Church and did not foresee the extremes that this struggle would entail.[31][32] The Catholic Church denounced the harsh new laws as anti-catholic and mustered the support of its rank and file voters across Germany. In the following elections, the Center Party won a quarter of the seats in the Imperial Diet.[33] The conflict ended after 1879 because Pius IX died in 1878 and Bismarck broke with the Liberals to put his main emphasis on tariffs, foreign policy, and attacking socialists. Bismarck negotiated with the conciliatory new pope Leo XIII.[34] Peace was restored, the bishops returned and the jailed clerics were released. Laws were toned down or taken back (Mitigation Laws 1880–1883 and Peace Laws 1886–87), but the main regulations such as the Pulpit Law and the laws concerning education, civil registry (incl. marriage) or religious disaffiliation remained in place. The Center Party gained strength and became an ally of Bismarck, especially when he attacked socialism.[35]
First Vatican Council
On 7 February 1862,
The doctrine of papal primacy was further developed in 1870 at the First Vatican Council, which declared that "in the disposition of God the Roman church holds the preeminence of ordinary power over all the other churches". This council also affirmed the dogma of papal infallibility, (declaring that the infallibility of the Christian community extends to the pope himself, when he defines a doctrine concerning faith or morals to be held by the whole Church), and of papal supremacy (supreme, full, immediate, and universal ordinary jurisdiction of the pope).
The most substantial body of defined doctrine on the subject is found in Pastor aeternus, the Dogmatic Constitution on the Church of Christ of Vatican Council I. This document declares that "in the disposition of God the Roman church holds the preeminence of ordinary power over all the other churches." This council also affirmed the dogma of papal infallibility.
The council defined a twofold primacy of Peter, one in papal teaching on faith and morals (the charism of infallibility), and the other a primacy of jurisdiction involving government and discipline of the Church, submission to both being necessary to Catholic faith and salvation.[36] It rejected the ideas that papal decrees have "no force or value unless confirmed by an order of the secular power" and that the pope's decisions can be appealed to an ecumenical council "as to an authority higher than the Roman Pontiff."
Paul Collins argues that "(the doctrine of papal primacy as formulated by the First Vatican Council) has led to the exercise of untrammelled papal power and has become a major stumbling block in ecumenical relationships with the Orthodox (who consider the definition to be heresy) and Protestants."[37]
Before the council in 1854, Pius IX, with the support of the overwhelming majority of bishops, proclaimed the
Social teachings
The
Veneration of Mary
Popes have always highlighted the inner link between the
Since the 19th century, they were highly important for the development of .Anti-clericalism, secularism and socialism
In many revolutionary movements the church was denounced for its links with the established regimes. Liberals in particular targeted the Catholic Church as the great enemy. Thus, for example, after the French Revolution and the Mexican Revolution there was a distinct anti-clerical tone in those countries that exists to this day. Socialism in particular was in many cases openly hostile to religion; Karl Marx condemned all religion as the "opium of the people," as he considered it a false sense of hope in an afterlife withholding the people from facing their worldly situation.
In the History of Latin America, a succession of anti-clerical liberal regimes came to power beginning in the 1830s. The confiscation of Church properties and restrictions on priests and bishops generally accompanied secularist, reforms.[44][45]
Jesuits
Only in the 19th century, after the breakdown of most Spanish and Portuguese colonies, was the Vatican able to take charge of Catholic missionary activities through its
During this period, the Church faced colonial abuses from the Portuguese and Spanish governments. In South America, the Jesuits protected native peoples from enslavement by establishing semi-independent settlements called
Africa
By the close of the 19th century, new technologies and superior weaponry had allowed European powers to gain control of most of the African interior.[48] The new rulers introduced a cash economy which required African people to become literate and so created a great demand for schools. At the time, the only possibility open to Africans for a western education was through Christian missionaries.[48] Catholic missionaries followed colonial governments into Africa and built schools, monasteries, and churches.[48]
Australasia and Oceania
The influx of Irish into Australia, first convicts and then poor free settlers, led to about a quarter of the Australian white population being Catholic. Irish priests, brothers and nuns led a strong church based on Irish models of piety.[49] The Australian Catholic Church ended the century in a phase of rapid expansion led by Cardinal Moran.
In New Zealand and many of the Pacific Islands, the French Marist Fathers established many successful missions.[50]
Eastern Orthodox Church
Greece
Even several decades before the fall of Constantinople to the Ottoman Empire in 1453, most of Greece had come under Ottoman rule.[51] During this time, there were several revolt attempts by Greeks to gain independence from Ottoman control.[52] In 1821, The Greek revolution was officially declared and by the end of the month, the Peloponnese was in open revolt against the Turks. The Ecumenical Patriarchate of Constantinople had issued statements condemning and even anathematizing the revolutionaries so as to protect the Greeks of Constantinople from reprisals by the Ottoman Turks.[53]
These statements, however, failed to convince anyone, least of all the Turkish government, which on Easter Day in 1821 had the Patriarch Gregory V hanged from the main gate of the patriarchal residence as a public example by order of the Sultan;[54] this was followed by a massacre of the Greek population of Constantinople. The brutal execution of Gregory V, especially on the day of Easter Sunday, shocked and infuriated the Greeks. It also caused protests in the rest of Europe and reinforced the movement of Philhellenism. There are references that during the Greek War of Independence, many revolutionaries engraved on their swords the name of Gregory, seeking revenge.
With the establishment of the
By the 1880s the "Anaplasis" ("Regeneration") Movement led to renewed spiritual energy and enlightenment. It fought against the rationalistic and materialistic ideas that had seeped in from secular Western Europe. It promoted catechism schools and Bible study circles.[56]
Serbia
The Serbian Orthodox Church in the Principality of Serbia gained its autonomy in 1831, and was organized as the Metropolitanate of Belgrade, remaining under the supreme ecclesiastical jurisdiction of the Ecumenical Patriarchate of Constantinople.[57] Principality of Serbia gained full political independence from the Ottoman Empire in 1878, and soon after that negotiations were initiated with the Ecumenical Patriarchate, resulting in canonical recognition of full ecclesiastical independence (autocephaly) for the Metropolitanate of Belgrade in 1879.[58] In the same time, Serbian Orthodox eparchies in Bosnia and Herzegovina remained under supreme ecclesiastical jurisdiction of the Ecumenical Patriarchate, but gained internal autonomy.[59] In southern eparchies, that remained under the Ottoman rule, Serbian metropolitans were appointed by the end of the 19th century.[60]
Romania
The Orthodox hierarchy in the territory of modern Romania had existed within the ecclesiastical jurisdiction of the Ecumenical Patriarchate of Constantinople until 1865 when the Churches in the Romanian principalities of Moldavia and Wallachia embarked on the path of ecclesiastical independence by nominating Nifon Rusailă, Metropolitan of Ungro-Wallachia, as the first Romanian primate. Prince Alexandru Ioan Cuza, who had in 1863 carried out a mass confiscation of monastic estates in the face of stiff opposition from the Greek hierarchy in Constantinople, in 1865 pushed through a legislation that proclaimed complete independence of the Church in the Principalities from the Patriarchate.
In 1872, the Orthodox churches in the principalities, the
Following the
Russia
The
The church was involved in the various campaigns of
The church, like the tsarist state, was seen as an enemy of the people by the Bolsheviks and other Russian revolutionaries.
Georgia
In 1801, the Kingdom of
Cyprus
In 1821 with the outbreak of the Greek War of Independence, the Greeks of Cyprus attempted to follow in the footsteps of those of Greece, such was the accusation which Küçük Mehmed brought against the bishops and the leading Greek laymen of the Island. As a result of this Archbishop Kyprianos, the three bishops of Paphos, Kition and Kyrenia together with other leading ecclesiastics and citizens were arrested. The Archbishop and his archdeacon were summarily hanged, the three bishops beheaded and the notables dispatched by the Janissaries. The Cypriot Orthodox Church had paid a terrible penalty for its abuse of power. This was the worst experience between Orthodox Church of Cyprus and Ottoman administration, and beginning of political separation.
The purchase of Cyprus by the British in 1878 allowed more freedom in religious practices, such as the use of bells in churches (which were forbidden under the Ottomans). Some linopampakoi took advantage of the political change to convert back to Christianity.
Coptic Orthodox Church
The position of Copts began to improve early in the 19th century under the stability and tolerance of the
Towards the end of the 19th century, the Coptic Church underwent phases of new development. In 1853,
The Theological College of the School of Alexandria was reestablished in 1893. It began its new history with five students, one of whom was later to become its dean.[67]
Timeline
- 1801 Cane Ridge, Kentucky
- 1801 – John Theodosius Van Der Kemp moves to Khoikhoi (Hottentots) people. Earlier he had helped found the Netherlands Missionary Society. In 1798, he had gone to South Africa to work as a missionary among the Xhosa.
- 1802 – Henry Martyn hears Charles Simeon speak of William Carey's work in India and resolves to become a missionary himself. He will sail for India in 1805[68]
- 1803 – The Massachusetts Baptist Missionary Society votes to publish a missionary magazine. Now known as The American Baptist, the periodical is the oldest religious magazine in the U.S.
- 1804 – Church Missionary Society enters Sierra Leone[70]
- 1805 – The first Christian missionaries arrive in Namibia, brothers Abraham and Christian Albrecht from the London Missionary Society[71]
- 1806 – Haystack prayer meeting at Protestantmissionary work begins in earnest across southern Africa
- 1807 – First Protestant missionary to China, Robert Morrison, begins work in Guangzhou (formerly called Canton)[72]
- 1809 – London Society for Promoting Christianity Amongst the Jews (now known as the Church's Ministry Among Jewish People) founded[73]
- 1809 – National Bible Society of Scotland organized[69]
- 1810 – The American Board of Commissioners for Foreign Missions is formed[74]
- 1811 – English Wesleyans enter Sierra Leone[75]
- 1811 The Campbells begin Restoration Movement
- 1812 – First American foreign missionary, Burma[76]
- 1813 – The Methodistsform the Wesleyan Missionary Society.
- 1814 – First recorded baptism of a mainland Chinese Protestant convert, Cai Gao; American Baptist Foreign Mission Society formed;[77] Netherlands Bible Society founded;[69] first missionaries arrive in New Zealand led by Samuel Marsden[78]
- 1815 – Society organized; Richmond African Missionary Society founded
- 1815 Peter the Aleut, orthodox Christian tortured and martyred in Catholic San Francisco, California
- 1816 – Robert Moffat arrives in Africa;[80] American Bible Society founded[81]
- 1816 Bishop Richard Allen, a former slave, founds the African Methodist Episcopal Church, the first African-American denomination
- 1817 – James Thompson, agent for British and Foreign Bible Society, begins distributing Bibles throughout Latin America[82]
- 1817 Prussian Union
- 1818 – Missionary work begins in Madagascar with the reluctant approval of the king[83]
- 1819 – Madras, India;[85] Reginald Heber writes words to missionary classic "From Greenland's Icy Mountains"[86]
- 1819 Thomas Jefferson produced the Jefferson Bible
- 1820 – Hiram Bingham goes to Hawaii (Sandwich Islands)[87]
- 1821 – African-American Lott Carey, a Protestant Episcopal Church mission board established[89]
- 1822 – African American Betsy Stockton is sent by the American Board of Missions to Hawaii. She thus becomes the first single woman missionary in the history of modern missions.[90]
- 1823 – Protestant evangelist, is ordained by Robert Morrison; Colonial and Continental Church Society formed[92]
- 1824 – Berlin Mission Society formed[93]
- 1824 English translation of Wilhelm Gesenius' ...Handwörterbuch...: Hebrew-English Lexicon, Hendrickson Publishers
- 1825 – Burma[94]
- 1826 – American Bible Society sends first shipment of Bibles to Mexico
- 1827 – Missionary
- 1827 Ernst Wilhelm Hengstenberg takes on the editorship of the Evangelische Kirchenzeitung, the chief literary organ of the Neo-Lutheranism
- 1827 Samuel Gobat begins his first stay in Ethiopia, residing at the capital city of Gondar. He is one of the first modern missionaries to that country.
- 1828 – Basel Mission begins work in the Christiansborg area of Accra, Ghana;[96] Karl Gützlaff of the Netherlands Missionary Society lands in Bangkok, Thailand;[97] Rhenish Missionary Association formed[93]
- 1828 Plymouth Brethren founded, Dispensationalism
- 1829 – George Müller, a native of Prussia, goes to England as a missionary to the Jews; Anthony Norris Groves, an Exeter dentist, sets off as a missionary to Baghdad accompanied by John Kitto
- 1830 – , by a western missionary
- 1830 Catherine Laboure receives Miraculous Medalfrom the Blessed Mother in Paris, France.
- 1830 Charles Finney's revivals lead to Second Great Awakeningin America
- 1830, 6 April Jesus Christ, and later the Angel Moroni. Book of Mormonalso published in 1830.
- 1831 – American St. Louis, Missouri seeking information on the "palefaces' religion"[101]
- 1832 – Teava, former cannibal and pioneer Pacific Islander missionary, is commissioned by John Williams to work on the Samoan island of Manono
- 1832 Church of Christ (Disciples)organized, made up of Presbyterians in distress over Protestant factionalism and decline of fervor
- 1832 persecution of Prussian Union.[102]
- 1833 – Baptist work in Free Will Baptist Foreign Missionary Societybegins work in India
- 1833 John Keble's sermon "National Apostasy" initiates the Oxford Movement in England
- 1834 – American Presbyterian Mission opens work in India in the Punjab;[105] Peter Parker MD, associated with the American Board of Commissioners for Foreign Missions, first American Medical Missionary to China opens Ophthalmic Hospital at Canton[106]
- 1835 – Rhenish Missionary Society begins work among the Daniel Wilson, Bishop of Calcutta calls India's castesystem "a cancer."
- 1836 – Plymouth Brethren begin work in Madras, India;[108] George Müller begins his work with orphans in Bristol, England;Gossner Mission formed;[93] Leipzig Mission Society established;[93] Colonial Missionary Society formed; The Providence Missionary Baptist District Association is formed, one of at least six national organizations among African American Baptists whose sole objective was missionary work in Africa.
- 1837 – Evangelical Lutheran Church mission board established;[109] First translation of Bible into Japanese (actual translation work done in Singapore)
- 1838 – Church of Scotland Mission of Inquiry to the Jews; four Scottish ministers including Robert Murray M'Cheyne and Andrew Bonar journey to Palestine; Augustinians enter Australia.
- 1838–1839 Saxon Lutherans objecting to LCMS
- 1839 – Entire Bible is published in language of Tahiti; three French missionaries martyred in Korea; English Protestant missionaries, including John Williams, murdered on Erromango (Vanuatu, South Pacific)[110]
- 1840 – David Livingstone is in present-day Malawi (Africa) with the London Missionary Society; American Presbyterians enter Thailand and labor for 18 years before seeing their first Thai convert;[100] Irish Presbyterian Missionary Society formed; Welsh Calvinistic Methodist Missionary Society founded
- 1841 – Edinburgh Medical Missionary Society formed;[71] Welsh Methodists begin working among the Khasi people of India
- 1842 – Church Missionary Society enters Badagry, Lagos
- 1842 – Gossner Mission Society receives royal sanction;[111] Norwegian Missionary Society formed in Stavanger[112]
- 1842 – Methodist Missionary, Thomas Birch Freeman arrives in Badagry, Nigeria [1];[113]
- 1843 – Baptist John Taylor Jones translates New Testament into the Thai language;[114] British Society for the Propagation of the Gospel among the Jews formed
- 1843, Disruption of: schism within the established Church of Scotland
- 1844 – German CMSmissionaries to that country
- 1844 Lars Levi Laestadius experiences awakening: beginning of laestadianism
- 1844, 22 October Millerites
- 1845 – Southern Baptist Convention mission organization founded[71]
- 1845 Southern Baptist Convention formed in Augusta, Georgia
- 1846 – The London Missionary Society establishes work on Niue, a South Pacific island which westerners had named the "savage island"[71]
- 1846 Bernadette Soubirous received the first of 18 apparitions of Our Lady of Lourdes in Lourdes, France.
- 1847 – Presbyterian William Burns goes to China, translates The Pilgrim's Progress into Chinese; Moses White sails to China as a Methodist medical missionary
- 1848 – Charles Forman goes to Punjab;[116] German missionaries Johannes Rebmann and Johann Ludwig Krapf arrive at Kilimanjaro. Initially, their story of a snow-covered peak near the equator was scoffed at.[117]
- 1848 Epistle to the Easterners and Encyclical of the Eastern Patriarchsresponse
- 1848 New York state
- 1849 – Just weeks after arriving on the Anatom, missionary John Geddie wrote in his journal: "In the darkness, degradation, pollution and misery that surrounds me, I will look forward in the vision of faith to the time when some of these poor islanders will unite in the triumphant song of ransomed souls, 'Unto Him that loved us, and washed us from our sins in His own blood.'" [118]
- 1850 – On the occasion of Rev. Thomas Valpy French, came to India in 1850, founded St. John's College, Agra, and became first Bishop of Lahorein 1877.
- 1851 – Allen Gardiner and six missionary colleagues die of exposure and starvation at Patagonia on the southern tip of South America because a re-supply ship from England arrives six months late.[119]
- 1852 – Zenana (women) and Medical Missionary Fellowship formed in England to send out single women missionaries[120]
- 1853– The Hermannsburg Missionary Society, founded in 1849 by Louis Harms, has finished training its first group of young missionaries. They are sent to Africa on a ship (the Kandaze) which had been built entirely from donations.[121]
- 1854 – New York Missionary Conference, guided by Alexander Duff, ponders the question: "To what extent are we authorized by the Word of God to expect the conversion of the world to Christ?";Church Missionary Society, sets out ideal of self-governing, self-supporting and self-propagating churches; Hudson Taylor arrives in China[123]
- 1854 Immaculate Conception, defined as Catholic dogma
- 1854 Missionary Hudson Taylor arrives in China
- 1855 – Henry Steinhauer is ordained as a Canadian Ojibwa and Creelanguages.
- 1855 Søren Kierkegaard, founder of Christian existentialism
- 1856 – Presbyterians start work in Colombia with the arrival of Henry Pratt[124]
- 1857 – Bible translated into Tswana language; Board of Foreign Missions of Dutch Reformed Church set up; four missionary couples killed at the Fatehgarh mission during the Indian Mutiny of 1857; Publication of David Livingstone's book Missionary Travels and Researches in South Africa
- 1858 – John G. Paton begins work in New Hebrides;[125] Basel Evangelical Missionary Society begins work in western Sumatra (Indonesia)
- 1859 – Protestant missionaries arrive in Japan;Christian and Missionary Alliance) is converted by the revival ministry of Henry Grattan Guinness
- 1861 – Protestant Stundism arises in the village of Osnova of modern-day under Ludwig Nommensen
- 1862 – Paris Evangelical Missionary Society opens work in Senegal[128]
- 1863 – Robert Moffat, missionary to Africa with the London Missionary Society, publishes his book Rivers of Water in a Dry Place, Being an Account of the Introduction of Christianity into South Africa, and of Mr. Moffat's Missionary Labours
- 1863 Seventh-day Adventist Church officially formed twenty 20 years after the Great Disappointment
- 1865 – The Salvation Army founded in London by William Booth
- 1865 Methodist preacher Salvation Army, vowing to bring the gospel into the streets to the most desperate and needy
- 1866 –
- 1867 – Santalsof India.
- 1868 – Robert Bruce goes to Iran, Canadian Baptist missionary Americus Timpany begins work among the Telugu people in India.
- 1869 – The first China Inland Missionhouse and nearly leads to open war between Britain and China.
- 1869–1870 Catholic Papal Infallibility, rejected by Christian Catholic Church of Switzerland
- 1870 – Clara Swain, the very first female missionary medical doctor, arrives at Bareilly, India; Orthodox Missionary Society founded[133]
- 1870 Italy declared war on the Papal States. The Italian Army enters Rome. Papal States ceased to exist.
- 1871 – Henry Stanley finds David Livingstone in central Africa[134]
- 1871 Pontmain, France was saved from advancing German troops with the appearing of Our Lady of Hope
- 1871–1878 German Kulturkampf against Roman Catholicism
- 1872 – First All-India Missionary Conference with 136 participants;[135] George Leslie Mackay plants church in northern Taiwan;[136] Lottie Moon appointed as missionary to China[137]
- 1873 – Regions Beyond Missionary Union founded in London in connection with the East London Training Institute for Home and Foreign Missions; first Scripture portion (Gospel of Luke) translated into Pangasinan, a language of the Philippines, by Alfonso Lallave[138]
- 1874 – Lord Radstock's first visit to St. Petersburg, Russia, and the beginning of an evangelical awakening among the St. Petersburg nobility; Albert Sturges initiates the Interior Micronesia Mission in the Mortlock Islands under the leadership of Micronesian students from Ohwa
- 1875 – The Foreign Christian Missionary Society organized within the Christian Church (Disciples of Christ) and Church of Christ movements; Clah, a Canadian Indian convert, brought Christianity to natives at Ft. Wangel, Alaska. He assumed the name of Philip McKay.
- 1876 – In September, a rusty ocean steamer arrives at a port on the Calabar River in what is now Nigeria. That part of Africa was then known as the White Man's Grave. The only woman on board that ship is 29-year-old Mary Slessor, a missionary.[139]
- 1877 – James Chalmers goes to New Guinea;[140] Presbyterians Sheldon Jackson and missionary-widow Amanda McFarland arrive at Ft. Wrangel, Alaska where they join Philip McKay (née Clah) to start missionary work. McFarland was the first white woman in Alaska, and renowned as "Alaska's Courageous Missionary." China Inland Mission opens up settled mission work in Sichuan.
- 1878 – Mass movement to Christ begins in Ongole, India[141]
- 1879 Church of Christ, Scientist founded in Boston by Mary Baker Eddy
- 1879 Our Lady, Queen of Ireland.
- 1880 – Woman missionary doctor Fanny Butler goes to India;[142] Missionary periodical The Gospel in All Lands is launched by A. B. Simpson;[143] Justus Henry Nelson and Fannie Bishop Capen Nelson begin 45 years of service in Belém, Pará, Brazil, establishing the first Protestant Church in Amazonia in 1883
- 1881 – Methodist work in Lahore, Pakistan starts in the wake of revivals under Bishop William Taylor; North Africa Mission (now Arab World Ministries) founded on work of Edward Glenny in Algeria[144]
- 1881–1894 AV, includes Apocrypha, scholarship never disputed
- 1882 – James Gilmour, London Missionary Society missionary to Mongolia, goes home to England for a furlough. During that time he published a book: Among the Mongols. It was so well-written that one critic wrote, "Robinson Crusoe has turned missionary, lived years in Mongolia, and wrote a book about it." Concerning the author, the critic said, "If ever on earth there lived a man who kept the law of Christ, and could give proof of it, and be absolutely unconscious that he was giving it to them, it is this man whom the Mongols called 'our Gilmour.'"[145] American Methodist Episcopal Mission enters Sichuan.
- 1883 – Christian and Missionary Alliancemission field opens.
- 1884 – David Torrance is sent by the Jewish Mission of the Free Church of Scotland as a medical missionary to Palestine
- 1884 Charles Taze Russell founded Bible Student movement known today as Jehovah's Witnesses
- 1885 – China Inland Mission[149]
- 1885 Baltimore Catechism
- 1886 – Student Volunteer Movement launched as 100 university and seminary students at Moody's conference grounds at Mount Hermon, Massachusetts, sign the Princeton Pledge which says: "I purpose, God willing, to become a foreign missionary."[150]
- 1886 Moody Bible Institute
- 1887 -Christian and Missionary Alliance's first missionary preacher. Unfortunately, en route to China, he died of smallpox. However, Cassidy's death has been called the "spark that ignited the Alliance missionary blaze." William Cassels, Montagu Proctor-Beauchamp, Arthur T. Polhill-Turner, and Cecil H. Polhill-Turner (four of the Cambridge Seven) arrive in Sichuan; Robert John Davidson and Mary Jane Davidson, Quaker missionaries of the Friends' Foreign Mission Association, arrive in Sichuan.
- 1888 – ) founded
- 1889 – Missionary linguist and folklorist Paul Olaf Bodding arrives in India, Santhal Parganas, and continues the work among the Santals started by Skrefsrud and Børresen in 1867; North Africa Mission enters Tripoli as first Protestant mission in Libya[153]
- 1890 – Central American Mission founded by C. I. Scofield, editor of the Scofield Reference Bible;[148] Methodist Charles Gabriel writes missionary song "Send the Light"; John Livingston Nevius of China visits Korea to outline his strategy for missions: 1) Each believer should be a productive member of society and active in sharing his faith; 2) The church in Korea should be distinctly Korean and free of foreign control; 3) The leaders of the Korean church will be selected and trained from its members; 4) Church buildings will be built by Koreans with their own resources;[154] American Baptist Missionary Union enters Sichuan.
- 1891 – Arabia;[155] Helen Chapman sails for the Congo (Zaire). She married a Danish missionary, William Rasmussen, whom she met during the voyage; Church Missionary Society enters Sichuan.
- 1892 – Redcliffe College, Centre for Mission Training founded in Chelsea, London.[156] Canadian Methodist Mission enters Sichuan.
- 1893 – Eleanor Chestnut goes to China as Presbyterian medical missionary;Nyack College[158]
- 1893 First Bible translation into Oromiffais published.
- 1894 – Soatanana Revival begins among Lutheran and LMS churches in Madagascar, lasting 80 years[122]
- 1894 The Kingdom of God is Within You, by Leo Tolstoy, start of Christian anarchism
- 1895 – Society for the Propagation of the Gospel in Foreign Parts to its North China Mission.[159] Amy Carmichaelarrives in India.
- 1896 – Ödön Scholtz founds the first Hungarian Lutheran foreign mission periodical Külmisszió[160]
- 1897 – Presbyterian Church (USA) begins work in Venezuela
- 1897 Christian flag, conceived in Brooklyn, New York
- 1898 – Theresa Huntington leaves her New England home for the Middle East. For seven years she will work as an American Board missionary in Elazığ (Kharput) in the Ottoman Empire. Her letters home will be published in a book titled Great Need over the Water ; Archibald Reekie of the Canadian Baptist Ministries arrives in Oruro as the first Protestant missionary to Bolivia. The work of Canadian Baptists led to the guarantee of freedom of religion in Bolivia in 1905.
- 1899 – James Rodgers arrives in Philippines with the Presbyterian Mission;[161] Central American Mission enters Guatemala[162]
- 1899 Gideons Internationalfounded
- 1900 – American Friends open work in Cuba; Ecumenical Missionary Conference in Carnegie Hall, New York (162 mission boards represented);[163] 189 missionaries and their children killed in Boxer Rebellion in China;[164] South African Andrew Murray writes The Key to the Missionary Problem in which he challenges the church to hold weeks of prayer for the world[165]
See also
- History of Christianity
- History of Protestantism
- History of the Roman Catholic Church#Industrial age
- History of the Eastern Orthodox Church
- History of Christian theology#Modern Christian theology
- History of Oriental Orthodoxy
- Timeline of the English Reformation
- Timeline of Christianity#19th century
- Timeline of Christian missions#1800 to 1849
- Timeline of the Roman Catholic Church#19th century
- Chronological list of saints and blesseds in the 19th century
- Restoration Movement
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Works cited
- ISBN 978-1-4051-4291-5.
- Kiminas, Demetrius (2009). The Ecumenical Patriarchate: A History of Its Metropolitanates with Annotated Hierarch Catalogs. Wildside Press LLC. ISBN 978-1-4344-5876-6.
- Rapp, Stephen H. Jr (2007). "Georgian Christianity". The Blackwell Companion to Eastern Christianity. John Wiley & Sons. pp. 137–155. ISBN 978-1-4443-3361-9. Retrieved 11 May 2012.
Further reading
- Burleigh, Michael. Earthly Powers: Religion and Politics in Europe from the Enlightenment to the Great War (2007)
- Clark, Christopher and Wolfram Kaiser, eds. Culture Wars: Secular-Catholic Conflict in Nineteenth-Century Europe (Cambridge UP, 2003) online
- Gilley, Sheridan, and Brian Stanley, eds. The Cambridge History of Christianity: Volume 8, World Christianities c.1815-c.1914 (2006) excerpt
- González, Justo L. (1985). The Story of Christianity, Vol. 2: The Reformation to the Present Day. San Francisco: Harper. ISBN 0-06-063316-6.
- Hastings, Adrian, ed. A World History of Christianity (1999) 608pp
- Latourette, Kenneth Scott. Christianity in a Revolutionary Age, I: The Nineteenth Century in Europe: Background and the Roman Catholic Phase; Christianity in a Revolutionary Age, II: The Nineteenth Century in Europe: The Protestant and Eastern Churches; Christianity in a Revolutionary Age, III: The Nineteenth Century Outside Europe: The Americas, the Pacific, Asia and Africa (1959–69), detailed survey by leading scholar
- MacCulloch, Diarmaid. Christianity: The First Three Thousand Years (2011)
- McLeod, Hugh. Religion and the People of Western Europe 1789–1989 (Oxford UP, 1997)
- McLeod, Hugh. Piety and Poverty: Working Class Religion in Berlin, London and New York (1996)
- McLeod, Hugh and Werner Ustorf, eds. The Decline of Christendom in Western Europe, 1750–2000 (Cambridge UP, 2004) online
- Shelley, Bruce L. (1996). Church History in Plain Language (2nd ed.). ISBN 0-8499-3861-9.
Catholicism
- Atkin, Nicholas, and Frank Tallett, eds. Priests, Prelates and People: A History of European Catholicism since 1750 (2003)
- Chadwick, Owen. A History of the Popes 1830-1914 (Oxford UP, 1998)
- Chadwick, Owen. The Popes and European Revolution (Oxford UP, 1981)
National and regional studies
- Ahlstrom, Sydney E. A Religious History of the American People (1972, 2nd ed. 2004); widely cited standard scholarly history excerpt and text search
- Angold, Michael, ed. The Cambridge History of Christianity: Volume 5, Eastern Christianity (2006)
- Callahan, William J. The Catholic Church in Spain, 1875–1998 (2000).
- Gibson, Ralph. A Social History of French Catholicism 1789–1914 (London, 1989)
- González Justo L. and Ondina E. González, Christianity in Latin America: A History (2008)
- Hastings, Adrian. A History of English Christianity 1920–2000 (2001)
- Hope, Nicholas. German and Scandinavian Protestantism 1700–1918 (1999)
- Lannon, Frances. Privilege, Persecution and Prophecy: The Catholic Church in Spain 1875–1975 (1987)
- Lippy, Charles H., ed. Encyclopedia of the American Religious Experience (3 vol. 1988)
- Lynch, John. New Worlds: A Religious History of Latin America (2012)
- McLeod, Hugh, ed. European Religion in the Age of Great Cities 1830–1930 (1995)
- Noll, Mark A. A History of Christianity in the United States and Canada (1992)
- Rosman, Doreen. The Evolution of the English Churches, 1500–2000 (2003) 400pp
External links
- Dictionary of the History of Ideas: Christianity in History
- Phillips, Walter Alison (1911). Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 6 (11th ed.). pp. 330–345. .
- Historical Christianity