Christianization of Scandinavia
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The Christianization of Scandinavia, as well as other Nordic countries and the Baltic countries, took place between the 8th and the 12th centuries. The realms of Denmark, Norway and Sweden established their own archdioceses, responsible directly to the pope, in 1104, 1154 and 1164, respectively. The conversion to Christianity of the Scandinavian people required more time, since it took additional efforts to establish a network of churches.
The earliest signs of
Although the Scandinavians became nominally Christian, it took considerably longer for actual Christian beliefs to establish themselves among the people in some regions,[5][6] while the people were Christianized before the king in other regions. During the Early Middle Ages the papacy had not yet manifested itself as the central Roman Catholic authority, thus making it possible for regional variants of Christianity to develop.[7]
Mission of Hamburg-Bremen
Recorded missionary efforts in Denmark started with
In 826, the King of
Horik I sacked
The supremacy of the archdiocese of Hamburg-Bremen over ecclesiastical life in the north gradually declined as the papacy, from the pontificate of Pope Gregory VII onwards, involved itself more with the North directly.[16] A significant step in this direction was the foundation of an archbishopric for the whole of Scandinavia at Lund in 1103–04.[16]
Both the accounts of Willibrod and of Harald are semi-mythical, and integrate mythical and legendary themes from the Nordic pagan tradition into their Christian stories. A syncretized variant of the story of Harald, that has him battling Ragnar Lodbrok to establish Christianity in Denmark, appears in Book Nine of Saxo Grammaticus' Gesta Danorum. Ebbo is the name of a mythical Nordic figure, Ibor, also known as Egil or Orvandil, who is an archer, elf, and smith who turns against the Aesir gods and wages war upon them, and the story of Ebbo of Rheims integrates themes of the divine Ebbo's story, including peasant (non-Aesir) birth and migration. Harald's usurpation and his efforts at Christianization are related to several stories of "usurpation" and "changes in sacrifices", including the usurpation of Mithothyn and the introduction of the worship of Frey at Uppsala, in that they utilize similar motifs and mythical figures.
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Denmark
The spread of Christianity in Denmark occurred intermittently. Danes encountered Christians when they participated in
As the chiefs and kings of Denmark became involved in the politics of Normandy, England, Ireland, France, and Germany, they adopted a kinder attitude toward their Christian subjects. In some cases the conversion of the chief or king appears to be purely political to assure an alliance or prevent powerful Christian neighbours from attacking. There were instances when the conversion of a powerful chief (Danish: jarl) or one of the kings was followed by wholesale conversions among their followers. In a few instances conversion was brought about by trial by ordeal miracles wrought by saintly Christians in the presence of the king or other great men of the time.
Christian missionaries recognized early on that the Danes did not worship stone or wooden idols as the north Germans or some Swedes did. They could not simply destroy an image to prove that Christ was a superior god. The great religious sites at Viborg, Lejre, Lund, and Odense were also the location of Denmark's great assembly places (Danish: landsting). Religious sites in Denmark were often located at sacred springs, magnificent beech groves, or isolated hilltops. Missionaries simply asked to build chapels in those places. Over time the religious significance of the place transferred itself to the chapel.
Even after becoming Christian, Danes blended the two belief systems together. Families who lived close to the earth did not want to offend the local spirits (Danish: landvætter), so offerings were left just as they had been in pre-Christian times. Sacred springs (Danish: kilder) were simply consecrated to one of the local saints associated with the spring and life went on much as it had before. Christian missionaries were able to help the process along by locating churches on or near sacred places, in some cases actually using wood from the sacred groves for church construction.
Denmark has several saints, canonized by local bishops as was the custom in early Scandinavia or revered by locals as saints. Often these saints derive their veneration from deeds associated with the Christianization of Denmark. Viborg has St Kjeld, Aarhus has St Niels (also called St Nickolas), Odense has St Canute (Danish: Sanct Knud). Others include Canute Lavard, Ansgar, St Thøger of Vendsyssel, St Wilhelm, St Leofdag of Ribe, and others gave their lives and efforts to the task of making the Danes Christian.
King
The first Danish king to convert to Christianity was Harald Klak, who had himself baptised during his exile in order to receive the support of Louis the Pious.[18] Rimbert reports that he set out to return home, accompanied by missionaries;[19] however, Sanmark regards it as "unlikely" that he actually returned home and thus considers his impact on the conversion of Denmark as "probably minor."[18]
Christianity only gained a strong hold in Denmark following the baptism of
Sweyn rebelled against his father, who spent an inordinate amount of time and money raising a great stone at Jelling to commemorate his accomplishments. One day King Harald asked a traveller if he had ever seen human beings move such a heavy load. "I have seen Sweyn drag all of Denmark away from you, sir. Judge for yourself which of you bears the heavier weight."[20] Harald left the stone lying in the path, realizing at last that Sweyn had nearly succeeded in stealing the whole kingdom. Several battles brought the rebellion to stalemate, but in 985 Harald was wounded by an arrow and later died in Jomsborg.
Sweyn Forkbeard tried to wrest control of the church in Denmark away from the
Another Christianizing influence was the mass emigration of Danes to England and Normandy in the Viking years. Thousands of Danes settled in east central England and in northern France displacing or intermarrying with the locals who were Christian. Once part of a Danish clan became Christian, it often meant that the rest of the family's view toward Christianity softened.
By the early 11th century, certainly during the reign of
From that time until 1536 when Denmark became a Lutheran country under the King (or Queen) of Denmark as the titular head of the Danish National Church, (Danish: Folkekirke) the struggle between the power of the king and nobles and the church would define much of the course of Danish history.
Norway
The first recorded attempts at spreading Christianity in Norway were made by King
He was followed by the staunchly pagan
In 995
Olaf I then made it his priority to convert the country to Christianity using all means at his disposal..
After Olaf's defeat at the
Nicholas Breakspear, later
Thirteenth-century
Sweden
The first known attempts to Christianize Sweden were made by
Newer archaeological research suggests there were Christians in Götaland already during the 9th century; it is further believed Christianity came from the southwest and moved towards the north.[24]
The supporters of the cult at Uppsala drew a mutual agreement of toleration[25] with Olof Skötkonung, the first Christian king of Sweden, who ascended to the throne in the 990s. Presumably Olof Skötkonung was not in a powerful enough position to violently enforce the observance of Christianity in Uppland.[26] Instead he established an episcopal see at Skara in Västergötland, near his own stronghold at Husaby around 1000.[26][27] Another episcopal see was established at Sigtuna in the 1060s[26] by King Stenkil, according to Adam of Bremen.[28] This seat was moved to Gamla Uppsala probably some time between 1134 and 1140.[28] This might have been because of Uppsala's importance as an old royal residence and thing site, but it may also have been inspired by a desire to show that the resistance to Christianity in Uppland had been defeated.[28] By papal initiative an archdiocese for Sweden was established at Uppsala in 1164.[28][29]
What may be one of the most violent occurrences between Christians and pagans was a conflict between
According to M. G. Larsson, the reason why the Swedish core provinces had coexistence between paganism and Christianity throughout the 11th century was because there was a general support for the transition towards the new religion.
Although Sweden was officially Christianized by the 12th century, the Norwegian king Sigurd the Crusader undertook a crusade against Småland, the south-eastern part of the Swedish kingdom, in the early 12th century, and officially it was in order to convert the locals.
Archaeological excavations of burial sites on the island of Lovön near modern-day Stockholm have shown that the actual Christianization of the people was very slow and took at least 150 to 200 years.[33]
Gotland
On the Swedish island of Gotland a Gotlandic law book known as the Gutalagen was officially in use from the 1220s until 1595. Still, in practice it remained in use until 1645. This law book stated that the performance of blóts was punishable by a fine.[34]
Jämtland
On the northernmost
Other Nordic countries
The Scandinavian medieval kings also ruled over provinces outside of Scandinavia. These provinces are today known as the Nordic countries.
Faroe Islands
Finland
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Judging by archaeological finds, Christianity gained a foothold in Finland during the 11th century. The Catholic church was strengthened with growing Swedish influence in the 12th century and the Finnish "crusade" of Birger Jarl in the 13th century. Finland was part of Sweden since then until the 19th century.
Iceland
Following King Olaf I's taking of Icelandic hostages, there was tension between the Christian and pagan factions in 10th century Iceland. Violent clashes were avoided by the decision of the
Motives for conversion
This section needs additional citations for verification. (October 2021) |
Some conversions appear to have taken place for political and material gain, while others were for spiritual reasons. For instance, some may have simply wanted to take the rich gifts (such as a fine, white baptismal garment) that were being handed out by Frankish nobles, who acted as the baptismal candidates' sponsors, when they were baptized. In the case of King Harald Bluetooth of Denmark, for example, he only partially converted to the new faith (at least at first) to preserve his independence from the Germans, who posed an even greater threat at the time than the Franks had been prior to this. He also saw that Christianity had much to offer to his rule. It not only helped to exalt his status, but it also provided practical help. The Missionary bishops were literate, and those who had experience of the royal government in Germany or England had the potential to be valuable advisors.[36] There was also an economic motive to convert as pagan kings were fascinated with Christian wealth. As a result, some chose to accept the new faith as a way to gain access to this wealth.[37]
Last pagans
In 1721, a new
Aftermath
Research shows that Scandinavian countries such as Denmark and Sweden are currently among the least religious nations in the world; nevertheless, "many Danes and Swedes, for instance, will profess belief in 'something,' although not necessarily the God of the Bible." Phil Zuckerman writes in a 2009 article to the Nordic Journal of Religion and Society, "Surely the historical developments of culture and religion in Denmark and Sweden are crucially informing factors in explaining the current state of irreligiosity."[39]
See also
- Christianization of Lithuania
- Christianization of Kievan Rus'
- Germanic Christianity
- Heimskringla – A mediaeval work that relates the lives of the two Norwegian missionary kings
- Northern Crusades
Notes
- ^ JSTOR j.ctt1nq59r. Archivedfrom the original on 17 May 2019. Retrieved 27 September 2022.
- ^ "Christianity comes to Denmark". National Museum of Denmark. Archived from the original on 3 February 2023. Retrieved 3 February 2023.
- ^ "Jellingstenene, ca. 950–965". danmarkshistorien.dk. Archived from the original on 7 January 2020. Retrieved 4 September 2020.
- JSTOR j.ctt1nq59r. Archivedfrom the original on 17 May 2019. Retrieved 27 September 2022.
- ^ Elena Melnikova, "How Christian Were Viking Christians?." Ruthenika, Suppl. 4 (2011) pp. 90–107
- ^ Schön 2004, 170
- ^ Sanmark 2004: 15
- ^ Latourette, A history of expansion of Christianity. Vol 2. The thousand years of uncertainty: AD 500–AD 1500 (1938) pp. 81–87.
- ^ Hvitfeldt, Arild. Danmarks Riges Krønike
- ^ a b "St Willibrord" Catholic Encyclopedia, 1913
- ^ Robinson, Charles (1915). The Conversion of Europe.
- ^ Rimbert, "Anskar: The Apostle of the North, 801–865", trans. C.H. Robinson in Carolingian Civilization: A Reader ed. Paul Edward Dutton (Ontario, Canada: Broadview Press, 2004), chap. 10
- ^ a b "Ancient See of Hamburg". Catholic Encyclopedia. 1913
- ^ Rimbert, "Anskar: The Apostle of the North, 801–865", trans. C.H. Robinson in Carolingian Civilization: A Reader ed. Paul Edward Dutton (Broadview Press, 2004), chap. 17.
- ^ "Danmark's Ældste Domkirke" Kristelig Dagblad 25 July 2007
- ^ a b Sanmark 2004: 107
- CiteSeerX 10.1.1.683.8845. Archivedfrom the original on 1 September 2022. Retrieved 1 September 2022.
- ^ a b c d Sanmark 2004: 81
- ^ Rimbert, The Life of Anskar (extract) Archived 14 June 2011 at the Wayback Machine
- ^ Hvitfeldt, Arild. Danmarks riges Krønike
- ^ Dr. Sæbjørg Walaker Nordeide, Enseignant-Chercheur, Centre for Medieval Studies, University of Bergen. "The Christianization of Norway" (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on 22 December 2018. Retrieved 23 May 2017.
{{cite web}}
: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) - ^ Kaufhold 2001: 116
- ^ Schön 2004, 173
- ^ "När Sverige blev kristet". Popularhistoria.se. 15 July 2008. Archived from the original on 21 February 2018. Retrieved 4 September 2020.
- ^ Kaufhold 2001, 86
- ^ a b c Sanmark 2004: 85
- ISBN 978-0-521-81284-9, archivedfrom the original on 15 June 2018, retrieved 4 January 2022
- ^ a b c d Sanmark 2004: 109
- ^ Kaufhold 2001, 117
- ^ The epithet of this last king reflects one of the purposes of pre-Christian Germanic kingship, to promote harmony and good harvests, árs ok friðar.
- ^ a b c Larsson 2002, 160
- ^ Larsson 2002, 161
- ^ Schön 2004, 172
- ^ "Gutalagen, en landslag". www.guteinfo.com. Archived from the original on 19 September 2020. Retrieved 4 September 2020.
- ^ Christianity Archived 27 October 2006 at the Wayback Machine, from a site on the Icelandic parliament.
- ^ Sawyer, Birgit; Sawyer, Peter (1999). "Why Trust The White Christ?". Christian History. 18 (3): 22–25.
- ^ Fodor, Eugene (1983). Fodor's Scandinavia. New York. p. 37.
{{cite book}}
: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link) - ^ Kenneth Scott Latourette, A history of expansion of Christianity. Vol 2. The thousand years of uncertainty: AD 500–AD 1500 (1938) pp. 106–43.
- ^ "Archived copy" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 15 December 2017. Retrieved 8 August 2012.
{{cite web}}
: CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link)
Further reading
- Berend, Nora. Christianization and the Rise of Christian Monarchy: Scandinavia, Central Europe and Rus' c. 900–1200 (2010).
- Katajala-Peltomaa, Sari. "Fatherhood, Masculinity and Lived Religion in Late-Medieval Sweden." Scandinavian Journal of History 38.2 (2013): 223–44.
- Latourette, Kenneth Scott. A history of expansion of Christianity. Vol 2. The thousand years of uncertainty: AD 500–AD 1500 (1938) pp. 106–43.
- Latourette, Kenneth Scott.Christianity in a Revolutionary Age. A History of Christianity in the Nineteenth and Twentieth Centuries, Vol. II: The Nineteenth Century in Europe, the Protestant and Eastern Churches (1959): pp. 131–96.
- Latourette, Kenneth Scott. Christianity in a Revolutionary Age. A History of Christianity in the Nineteenth and Twentieth Centuries, Vol. IV: The Twentirth Century in Europe, the Roman Catholic, Protestant and Eastern Churches. (1961): 310–36
- Melnikova, Elena. "How Christian Were Viking Christians?." Ruthenica, Suppl. 4 (2011). pp. 90–107; online; also online
- Meylan, Nicolas. "Mana in the North: Power and Religion in Medieval Scandinavian Historiography," History of Religions (Nov 2016) 56#2 149–66. doi:10.1086/688215
- ISBN 91-506-1739-7 Also: Ph.D. Thesis, 2002 London, University College pdfbibliography pp. 297–317.
- Winroth, Anders. The conversion of Scandinavia: Vikings, merchants, and missionaries in the remaking of Northern Europe (Yale UP, 2012).
In other languages
- Hoftun, Oddgeir (2008). Kristningsprosessens og herskermaktens ikonografi i nordisk middelalder, Oslo: Solum forlag. ISBN 978-82-560-1619-8(in Norwegian)
- Kaufhold, Martin (2001), Europas Norden im Mittelalter, Wissenschaftliche Buchgesellschaft ISBN 3-89678-418-8(in German)
- Larsson, M. G. (2002). Götarnas riken. Upptäcktsfärder till Sveriges enande. Atlantis, Stockholm. ISBN 91-7486-641-9. (in Swedish)
- Schön, Ebbe. (2004). Asa-Tors hammare, Gudar och jättar i tro och tradition. Fält & Hässler, Värnamo. ISBN 91-89660-41-2(in Swedish)