Chrysanthemum

Source: Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia.

Chrysanthemum
Chrysanthemum indicum
Scientific classification Edit this classification
Kingdom: Plantae
Clade: Tracheophytes
Clade: Angiosperms
Clade: Eudicots
Clade: Asterids
Order: Asterales
Family: Asteraceae
Subfamily: Asteroideae
Tribe: Anthemideae
Genus: Chrysanthemum
L.
Type species
Chrysanthemum indicum
Synonyms[3][4]
  • Chrysanthemum subsect. Dendranthema (DC.) DC. ex Kitam.
  • Neuractis Cass.
  • Pyrethrum sect. Dendranthema DC.
  • Leucanthemum (Tourn.) L.
  • Dendranthema (DC.) Des Moul.
Chrysanthemum
lit.)
Korean nameHangul국화Hanja菊花Japanese nameKanji菊花Hiraganaきくか

Chrysanthemums (

center of diversity is in China.[6]
Countless horticultural varieties and cultivars exist.

Description

Historical painting of chrysanthemums from the New International Encyclopedia, 1902
Pollen

The

serrate (toothed) but rarely entire; they are connected to stalks with hairy bases.[7]

The compound inflorescence is an array of several flower heads, or sometimes a solitary head. The head has a base covered in layers of phyllaries. The simple row of ray florets is white, yellow, or red. The disc florets are yellow. Pollen grains are approximately 34 microns.[citation needed]

The fruit is a ribbed achene.[8][7]

Etymology

The name "chrysanthemum" is derived from the

Ancient Greek: ἄνθεμον anthemon (flower).[9][10]

Taxonomy

The genus Chrysanthemum was first formally described by

botanical authority.[11] The genus once included more species, but was split several decades ago[when?] into several genera, putting the economically important florist's chrysanthemums in the genus Dendranthema. The naming of these genera has been contentious, but a ruling of the International Botanical Congress in 1999 changed the defining species of the genus to Chrysanthemum indicum, restoring the florist's chrysanthemums to the genus Chrysanthemum.[citation needed
]

Genera now separated from Chrysanthemum include Argyranthemum, Glebionis, Leucanthemopsis, Leucanthemum, Rhodanthemum, and Tanacetum.

Species

As of February 2020, Plants of the World Online accepted the following species:[4]

Former species include:

Ecology

Chrysanthemums start blooming in early autumn. This is also known as the favorite flower for the month of November.[12]

History

Chrysanthemums (Chinese: 菊花; pinyin: Júhuā) were first cultivated in China as a flowering herb as far back as the 15th century BCE.[13] Over 500 cultivars had been recorded by 1630.[8] By 2014 it was estimated that there were over 20,000 cultivars in the world and about 7,000 cultivars in China.[14] The plant is renowned as one of the Four Gentlemen (四君子) in Chinese and East Asian Art. The plant is particularly significant during the Double Ninth Festival.[citation needed]

Chrysanthemum cultivation in Japan began during the

Chrysanthemum Day (菊の節句, Kiku no Sekku) is one of the five ancient sacred festivals. It is celebrated on the 9th day of the 9th month. It was started in 910, when the imperial court held its first chrysanthemum show.[citation needed
]

Chrysanthemums entered American horticulture in 1798 when

Economic uses

Ornamental uses

C. indicum
Different colors of Chrysanthemum x morifolium
Example of a Japanese bonsai chrysanthemum

Modern cultivated chrysanthemums are showier than their wild relatives. Many horticultural specimens have been bred to bear many rows of ray florets in a great variety of colors. The flower heads occur in various forms, and can be daisy-like or decorative, like pompons or buttons. This genus contains many hybrids and thousands of cultivars developed for horticultural purposes. In addition to the traditional yellow, other colors are available, such as white, purple, and red. The most important hybrid is Chrysanthemum × morifolium (syn. C. × grandiflorum), derived primarily from C. indicum, but also involving other species.[citation needed]

Over 140 cultivars of chrysanthemum have gained the Royal Horticultural Society's Award of Garden Merit (confirmed 2017).[18]

In Japan, a form of bonsai chrysanthemum was developed over the centuries. The cultivated flower has a lifespan of about 5 years and can be kept in miniature size. Another method is to use pieces of dead wood and the flower grows over the back along the wood to give the illusion from the front that the miniature tree blooms.

Culinary uses

Yellow or white chrysanthemum flowers of the species C. morifolium are boiled to make a tea in some parts of East Asia. The resulting beverage is known simply as

rice wine
flavored with chrysanthemum flowers is called gukhwaju (국화주).

Chrysanthemum leaves are steamed or boiled and used as greens, especially in Chinese cuisine. The flowers may be added to dishes such as mixian in broth, or thick snakemeat soup (蛇羹) to enhance the aroma. They are commonly used in hot pot and stir fries. Japanese cuisine sashimi uses small chrysanthemums as garnish.

Insecticidal uses

Pyrethrum (Chrysanthemum [or Tanacetum] cinerariaefolium) is economically important as a natural source of insecticide. The flowers are pulverized, and the active components, called pyrethrins, which occur in the achenes, are extracted and sold in the form of an oleoresin. This is applied as a suspension in water or oil, or as a powder. Pyrethrins attack the nervous systems of all insects, and inhibit female mosquitoes from biting. In sublethal doses, they have an insect repellent effect.[citation needed] They are harmful to fish, but are far less toxic to mammals and birds than many synthetic insecticides. They are not persistent, being biodegradable, and also decompose easily on exposure to light. Pyrethroids such as permethrin are synthetic insecticides based on natural pyrethrum. Despite this, chrysanthemum leaves are still a major host for destructive pests, such as leafminer flies including L. trifolii.[19]

Persian powder is an example of industrial product of chrysanthemum insecticide.

Environmental uses

Chrysanthemum plants have been shown to reduce indoor air pollution by the NASA Clean Air Study.[20]

Cultural significance and symbolism

In some European countries (e.g., France,

better source needed][21] In the United States, the flower is usually regarded as positive and cheerful,[22] with New Orleans as a notable exception.[23]

In the Victorian language of flowers, the chrysanthemum had several meanings. The Chinese chrysanthemum meant cheerfulness, whereas the red chrysanthemum stood for "I Love", while the yellow chrysanthemum symbolized slighted love.[24] The chrysanthemum is also the flower of November.[25]

East Asia

China

Ming dynasty red lacquerware dish with carved chrysanthemums and dragons
  • The chrysanthemum is the city flower of Beijing and Kaifeng. The tradition of cultivating different varieties of chrysanthemums stretches back 1600 years, and the scale reached a phenomenal level during the Song dynasty until its loss to the Jürchens in 1126. The city has held the Kaifeng Chrysanthemum Cultural Festival since 1983 (renamed China Kaifeng Chrysanthemum Cultural Festival in 1994). The event is the largest chrysanthemum festival in China; it has been a yearly feature since, taking place between 18 October and 18 November every year.[26]
  • The chrysanthemum is one of the "Four Gentlemen" (四君子) of China (the others being the plum blossom, the orchid, and bamboo). The chrysanthemum is said to have been favored by Tao Qian, an influential Chinese poet, and is symbolic of nobility. It is also one of the four symbolic seasonal flowers.
  • A chrysanthemum festival is held each year in Tongxiang, near Hangzhou, China.[27]
  • Chrysanthemums are the topic in hundreds of poems of China.[28]
  • The "golden flower" referred to in the 2006 movie Curse of the Golden Flower is a chrysanthemum.
  • "Chrysanthemum Gate" (jú huā mén 菊花门), often abbreviated as Chrysanthemum (菊花), is taboo slang meaning "anus" (with sexual connotations).[29]
  • An ancient Chinese city (Xiaolan Town of Zhongshan City) was named Ju-Xian, meaning "chrysanthemum city".
  • The plant is particularly significant during the Chinese Double Ninth Festival.
  • In Chinese culture, the chrysanthemum is a symbol of autumn and the flower of the ninth moon. People even drank chrysanthemum wine on the ninth day of the ninth lunar month to prolong their lives during the Han dynasty. It is a symbol of longevity because of its health-giving properties.[30] Because of all of this, the flower was often worn on funeral attire.
  • Pharmacopoeia of the People's Republic of China listed two kinds of chrysanthemum for medical use, Yejuhua and Juhua. Historically Yejuhua is said to treat carbuncle, furuncle, conjunctivitis, headache, and vertigo. Juhua is said to treat cold, headache, vertigo, and conjunctivitis. [31]

Japan

Imperial Standard of the Emperor of Japan
The scabbard of a wakizashi with chrysanthemums painted using maki-e, a decoration technique of Japanese lacquerware. 18th century, Edo period.
Outer Kimono for a Young Woman (Uchikake). Motif: Chrysanthemums and fences.

Chrysanthemums first arrived in Japan by way of

Meiji period in the latter half of the 19th century, due to the growing importance of the chrysanthemum, which symbolized the Imperial family, the creation of ogiku style cultivars with a diameter of 20 cm or more became popular.[32][15][33]

In the present day, each autumn there are chrysanthemum exhibitions at the Shinjuku Gyo-en, Meiji Shrine and Yasukuni Shrine in Tokyo. The Yasukuni Shrine, formerly a state-endowed shrine (官国弊社, kankokuheisha) has adopted the chrysanthemum crest.[34] Culinary-grade chrysanthemums are used to decorate food, and they remain a common motif for traditional Japanese arts like porcelain, lacquerware and kimono.[32]

Chrysanthemum growing is still practised actively as a hobby by many

Nihonmatsu hosts the "Nihonmatsu Chrysanthemum Dolls Exhibition" every autumn in historical ruin of Nihonmatsu Castle.[35] They are also grown into chrysanthemum bonsai
forms.

  • Chrysanthemum crest on the battleship Mikasa
    Chrysanthemum crest on the battleship Mikasa
  • Maki-e Sake Ewer with Chrysanthemums and Paulownia Crests in Alternating Fields. early 17th century, Azuchi–Momoyama period.
    Maki-e Sake Ewer with Chrysanthemums and Paulownia Crests in Alternating Fields. early 17th century, Azuchi–Momoyama period.
  • Chrysanthemum shows have been traditionally held in many Japanese towns.
    Chrysanthemum shows have been traditionally held in many Japanese towns.
  • "Hirakata Chrysanthemum Dolls Exhibition" (2005)
    "Hirakata Chrysanthemum Dolls Exhibition" (2005)
  • Chrysanthemums in the Japanese Ogiku (lit., great chrysanthemum) style.
    Chrysanthemums in the Japanese Ogiku (lit., great chrysanthemum) style.

Korea

Korea has a number of flower shows that exhibit the chrysanthemum, such as the Masan Gagopa Chrysanthemum Festival.

The flower is found extensively in ancient inlaid Goreyo ware and reproduced in stamp form in Buncheong wares. Several twentieth century potters, especially Kim Se-yong, created double-wall wares featuring each individual petal painted in white clay against a celadon background. A vase produced using this technique and presented in 1999 to Queen Elizabeth II can be found in the Royal Collection.[38]

  • Korean painting Chrysanthemums, Rock and Bird, 19th century
    Korean painting Chrysanthemums, Rock and Bird, 19th century

West Asia

Iran

In Iran, chrysanthemums are associated with the Zoroastrian spiritual being Ashi Vanghuhi (lit. 'good blessings, rewards'), a female Yazad (angel) presiding over blessings.[39]

Israel

In 2017, Israel named a new fast-growing Chrysanthemum flower after Narendra Modi, the Prime Minister of India, in a special gesture to mark the first visit of an Indian prime minister to the Jewish nation.[40][41]

Oceania

Australia

In Australia, on Mother's Day, which falls in May when the flower is in season, people traditionally wear a white chrysanthemum, or a similar white flower to honour their mothers. Chrysanthemums are often given as Mother's Day presents.[42]

North America

United States

  • On 5 and 6 November 1883, in Philadelphia, the Pennsylvania Horticultural Society (PHS), at the request of the Florists and Growers Society, held its first Chrysanthemum Show in Horticultural Hall. This would be the first of several chrysanthemum events presented by PHS to the public.
  • The founding of the chrysanthemum industry dates back to 1884, when the Enomoto brothers of Redwood City, California grew the first chrysanthemums cultivated in America.[43]
  • In 1913, Sadakasu Enomoto (of San Mateo County) astounded the flower world by successfully shipping a carload of Turner chrysanthemums to New Orleans for the All Saints Day Celebration.[43]
  • The chrysanthemum was recognized as the official flower of the city of Chicago by Mayor Richard J. Daley in 1966.[44]
  • The chrysanthemum is the official flower of the city of Salinas, California.[45]
  • The chrysanthemum is the official flower of several fraternities and sororities including Chi Phi, Phi Kappa Sigma, Phi Mu Alpha Sinfonia,[46] Lambda Kappa Sigma,[47] Sigma Alpha and Triangle Fraternity.

Europe

Italy

Italian composer

Amedeo di Savoia Duca d'Aosta. In Italy (and other European countries) the chrysanthemum is the flower that people traditionally bring to their deceased loved ones at the cemetery and is generally associated with mourning. A probable reason for this is the fact that the plant flowers between the end of October and the beginning of November, coinciding with the Day of the Dead (2 November).

Poland

Chrysanthemums are placed on graves to honor the dead during All Saints' Day and All Souls' Day in Poland.[48]

United Kingdom

The UK National Collection of hardy chrysanthemums is at Hill Close Gardens near Warwick.[49]

Gallery

  • Bud of a garden chrysanthemum
    Bud of a garden chrysanthemum
  • Chrysanthemum × morifolium 'Tokyo'
  • Purple Chrysanthemum
    Purple Chrysanthemum
  • pink Chrysanthemum × morifolium
    pink Chrysanthemum × morifolium
  • Red chrysanthemum
    Red chrysanthemum
  • Closeup view of White Chrysanthemum
    Closeup view of White Chrysanthemum
  • Chrysanthemum × morifolium 'Vesuvius'
    Chrysanthemum × morifolium 'Vesuvius'
  • Chrysanthemum zawadskii
    Chrysanthemum zawadskii
  • Chrysanthemum indicum
  • Chrysanthemum japonense var. ashizuriense
    Chrysanthemum japonense var. ashizuriense
  • A peach coloured chrysanthemum
    A peach coloured chrysanthemum
  • Tiger Tail chrysanthemum
    Tiger Tail chrysanthemum
  • Leaves of chrysanthemum plant
    Leaves of chrysanthemum plant
  • A chrysanthemum show
    A chrysanthemum show
  • Yellow Chrysanthemum.
    Yellow Chrysanthemum.
  • Purple Chrysanthemum
    Purple Chrysanthemum
  • Chrysanthamums, mixed, part of a display at Hampton Court Flower Show.
    Chrysanthamums, mixed, part of a display at Hampton Court Flower Show.

See also

References

  1. JSTOR 1224444
    .
  2. ^ "Tropicos". www.tropicos.org.
  3. ^ "Flann, C (ed) 2009+ Global Compositae Checklist". Archived from the original on 14 November 2014. Retrieved 31 October 2021.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: bot: original URL status unknown (link)
  4. ^ a b c "Chrysanthemum L." Plants of the World Online. Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew. Retrieved 24 February 2020.
  5. ^ "Chrysanthemums: Rethinking a Fast-Food Flower". 17 September 2019.
  6. PMID 23133665
    .
  7. ^ a b Oberprieler et al 2007.
  8. ^ a b Chrysanthemum. Flora of China. eFloras.
  9. ^ David Beaulieu. "Chrysanthemums and Hardy Mums – Colorful Fall Flowers". About.com. Archived from the original on 10 January 2012.
  10. ^ Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Chrysanthemum" . Encyclopædia Britannica (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press.
  11. ^ Linnaeus 1753.
  12. ^ "Flower of the Month: Chrysanthemums". CityFlowersIndia. Archived from the original on 6 March 2016.
  13. ^ "History of the Chrysanthemum". National Chrysanthemum Society, USA. Archived from the original on 10 May 2013.
  14. ^ The Scientific World Journal Volume 2014, Article ID 625658
  15. ^ a b c History of chrysanthemums. Odawara City
  16. ^ Chrysanthemum exhibition Hiroshima Botanical Garden
  17. ^ The New York Botanical Garden, Curtis' Botanical Magazine, Volume X Bronx, New York: The New York Botanical Garden, 1797
  18. ^ "AGM Plants – Ornamental" (PDF). Royal Horticultural Society. July 2017. p. 19. Retrieved 24 January 2018.
  19. ^ "American serpentine leafminer - Liriomyza trifolii (Burgess)". entnemdept.ufl.edu. Retrieved 20 November 2019.
  20. ^ B. C. Wolverton; Rebecca C. McDonald; E. A. Watkins, Jr. "Foliage Plants for Removing Indoor Air Pollutants from Energy-efficient Homes" (PDF). Retrieved 27 December 2013.
  21. ^ Flower Meaning. Retrieved 22 September 2007. Archived 12 October 2007 at the Wayback Machine
  22. ^ "Chrysanthemum (Mums) Flower Meaning & Symbolism". Teleflora.
  23. ^ "Metairie Cemetery". PBase.
  24. ^ "Flower Meanings, Flower Sentiments". Language of Flowers. Archived from the original on 24 November 2016. Retrieved 26 November 2016.
  25. ^ "Birth Month Flower of November – The Chrysanthemum – Flowers, Low Prices, Same Day Delivery". 1st in Flowers!. 27 October 2008. Retrieved 27 March 2010.
  26. ^ "中国开封菊花花会更名为中国开封菊花文化节_新浪新闻". news.sina.com.cn. Retrieved 29 November 2017.
  27. ^ "Remarkable Investment Attraction Result of Tongxiang City". Zhejiang Foreign Frade and Economic Cooperation Bureau. Archived from the original on 16 December 2003. Retrieved 17 July 2009.
  28. ^ 2010年03月27日星期六 二月十二庚寅(虎)年. "国学365-中国历代菊花诗365首". Guoxue.com. Retrieved 27 March 2010.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link)
  29. ^ Chao, E. (2009). Niubi: the real Chinese you were never taught in school. Plume.
  30. ^ "Chinese Symbols." The British Museum, 2008. Accessed 4 October 2017.
  31. .
  32. ^ a b c Buckley, Sandra (2002). Encyclopedia of Contemporary Japanese Culture. Routledge.
  33. ^ LOVE OF FLOWERS. "Sketches of Japanese manners and customs" Jacob Mortimer Wier Silver, 1867
  34. ^ Inoue, Nobutaka (2 June 2005). "Shinmon". Encyclopedia of Shinto. Retrieved 17 November 2008.
  35. ^ "二本松の菊人形". City.nihonmatsu.lg.jp. Archived from the original on 23 July 2011. Retrieved 27 March 2010.
  36. ^ Jones, Colin. "Badges of honor: what Japan's legal lapel pins really mean". The Japan Times. Retrieved 26 February 2015.
  37. ^ "Markings on Japanese Arisaka Rifles and Bayonets of World War II". oldmilitarymarkings.com.
  38. ^ "Kim Se-Yong (b.1946) - Vase". www.rct.uk. Retrieved 15 March 2024.
  39. OCLC 3009874
    .
  40. ^ "Introducing the 'Modi' Flwoer: Israel names Chrysanthemum After Indian PM". The Jerusalem Post. 5 July 2017.
  41. Livemint
    . 5 July 2017.
  42. ^ "Flowering Plants and Shrubs". Archived from the original on 27 September 2011.
  43. ^ a b La Peninsula, xlii (1)
  44. ^ Chrysanthemum: The Official Flower of Chicago. Chicago Public Library.
  45. ^ City of Salinas Permit Center. Archived 5 October 2013 at the Wayback Machine City of Salinas Community Development Department.
  46. ^ "Phi Mu Alpha". www.ou.edu.
  47. ^ "Sigma Alpha, University of California, Davis chapter".
  48. ^ "All Saints' Day". Ministry of Foreign Affairs.
  49. ^ "UK: National Plant Collection to preserve chrysanthemums". Floral Daily. 10 March 2016. Archived from the original on 14 October 2017. Retrieved 13 October 2017.

Bibliography

Books
Articles

External links