Chu (state)

Source: Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia.
This article is about the state of Chu during the Zhou dynasty. For other states of the same name, see Chu.
Chu
楚
*s-r̥aʔ
c. 1030 BC – 223 BC
  Chu (楚)
c. 350 BC
Status
  • Viscounty
    (before 704 BC)
  • Kingdom (704–223 BC)
Capital
Religion
GovernmentMonarchy
Historical eraZhou dynasty
• Founded by Xiong Yi
c. 1030 BC 
• Xiong Tong proclaimed king
706 or 703 BC
• Conquered by Qin
 223 BC
CurrencyAncient Chinese coinage
 Succeeded by
Qin dynasty
Chu
Tâi-lô
Tshóo
Middle Chinese
Middle Chinesetʂʰjó
Old Chinese
Baxter (1992)*tsrhjaʔ
Baxter–Sagart (2014)*s-r̥aʔ

Chu (Chinese: 楚; pinyin: Chǔ; Wade–Giles: Ch'u,[2] Old Chinese: *s-r̥aʔ[3]) was a Zhou dynasty vassal state. Their first ruler was King Wu of Chu in the early 8th century BC. Chu was located in the south of the Zhou heartland and lasted during the Spring and Autumn period. At the end of the Warring States period it was destroyed by the Qin in 223 BC during the Qin's wars of unification.

Also known as Jing (荊) and Jingchu (荊楚), Chu included most of the present-day provinces of

lineage name Yan (酓 OC: /*qlamʔ/, /*qʰɯːm/) which would later be written Xiong (熊 OC: /*ɢʷlɯm/).[6][7]

History

Founding

According to legends recounted in

fiefdom of Chu in the Nanyang Basin and the hereditary title of 子 (zǐ, "viscount"). Then the first capital of Chu was established at Danyang (present-day Xichuan in Henan).[8]

Western Zhou

In 977 BC, during

Han River. After this death, Zhou ceased to expand to the south, allowing the southern tribes and Chu to cement their own autonomy much earlier than the states to the north. The Chu viscount Xiong Qu overthrew E in 863 BC but subsequently made its capital Ezhou one of his capitals.[9] In either 703[10] or 706,[11] the ruler Xiong Tong
became the ruler of Chu.

Spring and Autumn Period

Main article: Interstate relations during the Spring and Autumn period
State of Chu, depicting men wearing precursors to Hanfu (i.e. traditional silk dress) and riding in a two-horsed chariot

Under the reign of King Zhuang, Chu reached the height of its power and its ruler was considered one of the five Hegemons of the era. After a number of battles with neighboring states, sometime between 695 and 689 BC, the Chu capital moved south-east from Danyang to Ying. Chu first consolidated its power by absorbing other states in its original area (modern Hubei), then it expanded into the north towards the North China Plain. In the summer of 648 BC, the State of Huang was annexed by the state of Chu.[12]

The threat from Chu resulted in multiple northern alliances under the leadership of

central plain. In 597 BC, Jin was defeated by Chu in the battle of Bi, causing Jin's temporary inability to counter Chu's expansion. Chu strategically used the state of Zheng as its representative in the central plain area, through the means of intimidation and threats, Chu forced Zheng to ally with itself. On the other hand, Jin had to balance out Chu's influence by repeatedly allying with Lu, Wey, and Song. The tension between Chu and Jin did not loosen until the year of 579 BC when a truce was signed between the two states.[13]

At the beginning of the sixth century BC, Jin strengthened the state of

Goujian
, who took revenge for his former captivity by crushing and completely annexing Wu.

Warring States period

Freed from its difficulties with Wu, Chu annexed Chen in 479 BC and overran Cai to the north in 447 BC. By the end of the 5th century BC, the Chu government had become very corrupt and inefficient, with much of the state's treasury used primarily to pay for the royal entourage. Many officials had no meaningful task except taking money and Chu's army, while large, was of low quality.

In the late 390s BC,

chancellor. Wu's reforms began to transform Chu into an efficient and powerful state in 389 BC, as he lowered the salaries of officials and removed useless officials. He also enacted building codes to make the capital Ying seem less barbaric. Despite Wu Qi's unpopularity among Chu's ruling class, his reforms strengthened the king and left the state very powerful until the late 4th century BC, when Zhao and Qin were ascendant. Chu's powerful army once again became successful, defeating the states of Wei and Yue. Yue was partitioned between Chu and Qi in either 334[citation needed] or 333 BC.[14] However, the officials of Chu wasted no time in their revenge and Wu Qi was assassinated at King Dao's funeral in 381 BC. Prior to Wu's service in the state of Chu, Wu lived in the state of Wei, where his military analysis of the six opposing states was recorded in his magnum opus, The Book of Master Wu
. Of Chu, he said:

Bronze from the Tomb of Chu in Xichuan County.

The Chu people are soft and weak. Their lands stretch far and wide, and the government cannot effectively administer the expanse. Their troops are weary and although their formations are well-ordered, they do not have the resources to maintain their positions for long. To defeat them, we must strike swiftly, unexpectedly and retreat quickly before they can counter-attack. This will create unease in their weary soldiers and reduce their fighting spirit. Thus, with persistence, their army can be defeated.

— Wu Qi, Wuzi

During the late Warring States period, Chu was increasingly pressured by Qin to its west, especially after Qin enacted and preserved the

Shouchun
, farther away from the threat of Qin.

As Qin expanded into Chu's territory, Chu was forced to expand southwards and eastwards, absorbing local cultural influences along the way. Lu was conquered by King Kaolie in 223 BC. By the late 4th century BC, however, Chu's prominent status had fallen into decay. As a result of several invasions headed by Zhao and Qin, Chu was eventually completely wiped out by Qin.

Defeat

Main article: Qin's wars of unification § Conquest of Chu

The Chu state was completely eradicated by the Qin dynasty.

Bronze bells from the Tomb of Marquis Yi of Zeng, dated 433 BC, State of Chu.

According to the

Shu
is conquering Chu" and, "once Chu is eliminated, the country will be united".

The importance of Shu in the

Shouchun in 241 BC. After a massive two-year struggle, Bai Qi lured the main Zhao force of 400,000 men onto the field, surrounding them and forcing their surrender at Changping
in 260 BC. The Qin army massacred their prisoners, removing the last major obstacle to Qin dominance over the Chinese states.

By 225 BC, only four kingdoms remained: Qin, Chu, Yan, and Qi. Chu had recovered sufficiently to mount serious resistance. Despite its size, resources, and manpower, though, Chu's corrupt government worked against it. In 224 BC, Ying Zheng called for a meeting with his subjects to discuss his plans for the invasion of Chu. Wang Jian said that the invasion force needed to be at least 600,000 strong, while Li Xin thought that less than 200,000 men would be sufficient. Ying Zheng ordered Li Xin and Meng Wu to lead the army against Chu.[citation needed]

The Chu army, led by Xiang Yan secretly followed Li Xin's army for three days and three nights, before launching a surprise offensive and destroying Li Xin army. Upon learning of Li's defeat, Ying Zheng replaced Li with Wang Jian, putting Wang in command of the 600,000-strong army he had requested earlier and placing Meng Wu beneath him as a deputy. Worried that the Qin tyrant might fear the power he now possessed and order him executed upon some pretense, Wang Jian constantly sent messengers back to the king in order to remain in contact and reduce the king's suspicion.

Wang Jian's army passed through southern Chen (陳; present-day

Huaiyang in Henan) and made camp at Pingyu. The Chu armies under Xiang Yan used their full strength against the camp but failed. Wang Jian ordered his troops to defend their positions firmly but avoid advancing further into Chu territory. After failing to lure the Qin army into an attack, Xiang Yan ordered a retreat; Wang Jian seized this opportunity to launch a swift assault. The Qin forces pursued the retreating Chu forces to Qinan (蕲南; northwest of present-day Qichun in Hubei) and Xiang Yan was either killed in the action or committed suicide following his defeat.[citation needed
]

The next year, in 223 BC, Qin launched another campaign and captured the Chu capital Shouchun. King

Kuaiji Prefecture
of the Qin Empire.

At their peak, Chu and Qin together fielded over 1,000,000 troops, more than the massive Battle of Changping between Qin and Zhao 35 years before. The excavated personal letters of two regular Qin soldiers, Hei Fu (黑夫) and Jing (惊), tell of a protracted campaign in Huaiyang under Wang Jian. Both soldiers wrote letters requesting supplies of clothing and money from home to sustain the long waiting campaign.[16]

Qin and Han dynasties

Spearhead from the state of Chu
Main article: Chu–Han Contention

The Chu populace in areas conquered by Qin openly ignored the stringent Qin laws and governance, as recorded in the

clans,[17] Qin surely be perished by none other but Chu" (楚雖三戶, 亡秦必楚).[18]

After Ying Zheng declared himself the First Emperor (

Shi Huangdi) and reigned briefly, the people of Chu and its former ruling house organized the first violent insurrections against the new Qin administration. They were especially resentful of the Qin corvée; folk poems record the mournful sadness of Chu families whose men worked in the frigid north to construct the Great Wall of China
.

The

Dazexiang Uprising occurred in 209 BC under the leadership of a Chu peasant, Chen Sheng, who proclaimed himself "King of Rising Chu" (Zhangchu). This uprising was crushed by the Qin army but it inspired a new wave of other rebellions. One of the leaders, Jing Ju of Chu, proclaimed himself the new king of Chu. Jing Ju was defeated by another rebel force under Xiang Liang. Xiang installed Xiong Xin, a scion of Chu's traditional royal family, on the throne of Chu under the regnal name King Huai II. In 206 BC, after the fall of the Qin Empire, Xiang Yu, Xiang Liang's nephew, proclaimed himself the "Hegemon-King of Western Chu" and promoted King Huai II to "Emperor Yi". He subsequently had Yi assassinated. Xiang Yu then engaged with Liu Bang, another prominent anti-Qin rebel, in a long struggle for supremacy over the lands of the former Qin Empire, which became known as the Chu–Han Contention. The conflict ended in victory for Liu Bang: he proclaimed the Han dynasty and was later honored with the temple name
Gaozu, while Xiang Yu committed suicide in defeat.

Liu Bang immediately enacted a more traditional and less intrusive administration than the Qin before him, made peace with the

Pengcheng was granted first to general Han Xin and then to Liu Bang's brother Liu Jiao as the Kingdom of Chu. By the time of Emperor Wu of Han, the southern folk culture and aesthetics were mixed with the Han-sponsored Confucian tradition and Qin-influenced central governance to create a distinct "Chinese
" culture.

Culture

Tomb guardian.
Drum with and Bird and Tiger Frame, Chu-state, Spring and Autumn period.
yuren (羽人) figure
on a toad stand

Based on the archaeological finds, Chu's culture was initially quite similar to that of the other Zhou states of the Yellow River basin. However, subsequently, Chu absorbed indigenous elements from the Baiyue lands that it conquered to the south and east, developing a blended culture compared to the northern plains.

During the Western Zhou period, the difference between the culture of Chu and the Central Plains states to the north was negligible. Only in the late Spring and Autumn Period does Chu culture begin to diverge, preserving some older aspects of the culture and developing new phenomena. It also absorbed some elements from annexed areas. The culture of Chu had significant internal diversity from locality to locality.[19] Chu, like Qin and Yan, was often described as being not as cultured by people in the Central plains. However, this image originated with the later development of Chu relative to the Central plains, and the stereotype was retrospectively cultivated by Confucian scholars in the Qin dynasty, to indirectly criticise the ruling regime, and the Han dynasty as a means of curbing their ideological opponents who were associated with such cultural practices.[20] As the founder of the Han dynasty was from the state, Chu culture would later become a basis of the culture of the later Han dynasty, along with that of the Qin dynasty's and other preceding states' from the Warring States period.[21]

Early Chu burial offerings consisted primarily of

bronze vessel offerings
. A common Chu motif was the vivid depiction of wildlife, mystical animals, and natural imagery, such as
phoenixes, tigers, and free-flowing clouds and serpent-like beings. Some archaeologists speculate that Chu may have had cultural connections to the previous Shang dynasty
, since many motifs used by Chu appeared earlier at Shang sites such as serpent-tailed gods.

Another common Chu idea was the worship of gibbons and other animals perceived to have auspicious amounts of qi.[23]

Later Chu culture was known for its affinity for shamans. The Chu culture and government supported Taoism[23] and native shamanism supplemented with some Confucian glosses on Zhou ritual. Chu people affiliated themselves with the god of fire Zhurong in Chinese mythology. For this reason, fire worshiping and red coloring were practiced by Chu people.[24]

The naturalistic and flowing art, the Songs of Chu, historical records, excavated bamboo documents such as the Guodian slips, and other artifacts reveal heavy Taoist and native folk influence in Chu culture. The disposition to a spiritual, often pleasurable and decadent lifestyle, and the confidence in the size of the Chu realm led to the inefficiency and eventual destruction of the Chu state by the ruthless Legalist state of Qin. Even though the Qin realm lacked the vast natural resources and waterways of Chu, the Qin government maximized its output under the efficient minister Shang Yang, installing a meritocracy focused solely on agricultural and military might.

Archaeological evidence shows that Chu music was annotated differently from Zhou. Chu music also showed an inclination for using different performance ensembles, as well as unique instruments. In Chu, the se was preferred over the zither, while both instruments were equally preferred in the northern Zhou states.

Chu came into frequent contact with other peoples in the south, most notably the Ba, Yue, and the Baiyue. Numerous burials and burial objects in the Ba and Yue styles have been discovered throughout the territory of Chu, co-existing with Chu-style burials and burial objects.

Some archaeological records of the Chu appear at Mawangdui. After the Han dynasty, some Confucian scholars considered Chu culture with distaste, criticizing the "lewd" music and shamanistic rituals associated with Chu culture.

Bronze ladle from the state of Chu

Chu artisanship includes color, especially the lacquer woodworks. Red and black pigmented lacquer were most used. Silk-weaving also attained a high level of craftsmanship, creating lightweight robes with flowing designs. These examples (as at Mawangdui) were preserved in waterlogged tombs where the lacquer did not peel off over time and in tombs sealed with coal or white clay. Chu used the calligraphic script called

"Birds and Worms" style, which was borrowed by the Wu and Yue states. It has a design that embellishes the characters with motifs of animals, snakes, birds, and insects. This is another representation of the natural world and its liveliness. Chu produced broad bronze swords that were similar to Wuyue
swords but not as intricate.

Chu created a riverine transport system of boats augmented by wagons. These are detailed in bronze tallies with gold inlay regarding trade along the river systems connecting with those of the Chu capital at Ying.

Linguistic influences

Although bronze inscriptions from the ancient state of Chu show little linguistic differences from the "Elegant Speech" (yǎyán 雅言) during the Eastern Zhou period,[25] the variety of Old Chinese spoken in Chu has long been assumed to reflect lexical borrowings and syntactical interferences from non-Sinitic substrates, which the Chu may have acquired as a result of its southern migration into what Tian Jizhou believed to be a Kra–Dai or (para-) Hmong–Mien area in southern China.[26][27] Recent excavated texts, corroborated by dialect words recorded in the Fangyan, further demonstrated substrate influences, but there are competing hypotheses on their genealogical affiliation.[28][29]

  • Aberrant early Chinese dialect, originally from the North[30]
  • Austroasiatic (Norman & Mei 1976, Boltz 1999)
  • Hmong–Mien (Erkes 1930, Long & Ma 1983, Brooks 2001, Sagart et al. 2005)[31]
  • Kra–Dai (Liu Xingge 1988, Zhengzhang Shangfang 2005)
  • Tibeto-Burman (Zhang Yongyan 1992, Zhou Jixu 2001)
  • Mixture of Austroasiatic, Hmong-Mien and Tibeto-Burman (Pullyblank 1983, Schuessler 2004 & 2007)
  • Unknown

Noticing that both 荆 Jīng and 楚 Chǔ refer to the thorny

chaste tree (genus Vitex), Schuessler (2007) proposes two Austroasiatic comparanda:[32]

Bureaucracy

Pair of shamans or attendants, Chu culture, Jiangling, Hubei province, China, Warring States period, 4th-3rd century BC, wood, cinnabar, black lacquer. Portland Art Museum

The Mo'ao (莫敖) and the Lingyin (令尹) were the top government officials of Chu. Sima was the military commander of Chu's army. Lingyin, Mo'ao and Sima were the San Gong (三公) of Chu. In the Spring and Autumn period, Zuoyin (左尹) and Youyin (右尹) were added as the undersecretaries of Lingyin. Likewise, Sima (司馬) was assisted by Zuosima (左司馬) and Yousima (右司馬) respectively. Mo'ao's status was gradually lowered while Lingyin and Sima became more powerful posts in the Chu court.[34]

Ministers whose functions vary according to their titles were called Yin (尹). For example: Lingyin (Prime minister), Gongyin (Minister of works), and Zhenyin were all suffixed by the word "Yin".[35] Shenyin (沈尹) was the minister of religious duties or the high priest of Chu, multiple entries in Zuo Zhuan indicated their role as oracles.[36] Other Yins recorded by history were: Yuyin, Lianyin, Jiaoyin, Gongjiyin, Lingyin, Huanlie Zhi Yin (Commander of Palace guards) and Yueyin (Minister of Music). In counties and commanderies, Gong (公), also known as Xianyin (minister of county) was the chief administrator.[37]

In many cases, positions in Chu's bureaucracy were hereditarily held by members of a cadet branch of Chu's royal house of

Ruo'ao rebellion, Lingyin was a position held by Ruo'aos, namely Dou (鬭) and Cheng (成).[13]

Geography

Progenitors of Chu such as viscount

central plain. Due to its strategic value, numerous castles were built on the Fangcheng mountain.[13]

Jianli, Shishou, Macheng, Huanggang, and Anlu.[13]

Shaoxi Pass was an important outpost in the mountainous western border of Chu. It was located in today's Wuguan town of Danfeng County, Shaanxi. Any forces that marched from the west, mainly from Qin, to Chu's realm would have to pass Shaoxi.[13]

List of states later became part of the Chu

  • 863 BC E
  • 704 BC
    Quan
  • 690 BC Luo
  • 688–680 BC Shen
  • 684–680 BC Xi
  • 678 BC Deng
  • 648 BC Huang
  • after 643 BC Dao
  • 623 BC Jiang
  • 622 BC Liao
  • 622 BC Lù (六).[38]
  • after 622 BC Ruo
  • 611 BC Yong
  • 601 BC Shuliao[38]
  • Sometime in the 6th century BC Zhongli[39]
  • after 506 BC Sui
  • 574 BC Shuyong
  • 538 BC Lai (賴國)
  • 512 BC Xu
  • 479 BC Chen
  • 445 BC Qi
  • 447 BC Cai
  • 431 BC Ju
  • after 418 BC Pi
  • About 348 BC Zou
  • 334 BC Yue
  • 249 BC Lu

Rulers

See also: Rulers of Chu family tree
Early rulers[8][40]
  1. Pangeng
    ; adopted Mi (芈) as ancestral name
  2. Yingbo (𦀚伯) or Fuju (附沮), son of Jilian
  3. Yuxiong (鬻熊), ruled 11th century BC: also called Xuexiong (穴熊), teacher of King Wen of Zhou
  4. Xiong Li (熊麗), ruled 11th century BC: son of Yuxiong, first use of clan name Yan (酓), later written as Xiong (熊)
  5. Xiong Kuang (熊狂), ruled 11th century BC: son of Xiong Li
Viscounts
  1. Xiong Yi (熊繹), ruled 11th century BC: son of Xiong Kuang, enfeoffed by King Cheng of Zhou
  2. Xiong Ai (熊艾), ruled c. 977 BC: son of Xiong Yi, defeated and killed King Zhao of Zhou
  3. Xiong Dan (熊䵣), ruled c. 941 BC: son of Xiong Ai, defeated King Mu of Zhou
  4. Xiong Sheng (熊勝), son of Xiong Dan
  5. Xiong Yang (熊楊), younger brother of Xiong Sheng
  6. Xiong Qu (熊渠), son of Xiong Yang, gave the title king to his three sons
  7. Shiji says Xiong Kang died early without ascending the throne, but the Tsinghua Bamboo Slips recorded him as the successor of Xiong Qu.[41]
  8. Xiong Zhi (熊摯), son of Xiong Kang, abdicated due to illness[41][42]
  9. Xiong Yan (elder) (熊延), ruled ?–848 BC: younger brother of Xiong Zhi
  10. Xiong Yong (熊勇), ruled 847–838 BC: son of Xiong Yan
  11. Xiong Yan (younger) (熊嚴), ruled 837–828 BC: brother of Xiong Yong
  12. Xiong Shuang (熊霜), ruled 827–822 BC: son of Xiong Yan
  13. Xiong Xun (熊徇), ruled 821–800 BC: youngest brother of Xiong Shuang
  14. Xiong E (熊咢), ruled 799–791 BC: son of Xiong Xun
  15. Ruo'ao (若敖) (Xiong Yi 熊儀), ruled 790–764 BC: son of Xiong E
  16. Xiao'ao (霄敖) (Xiong Kan 熊坎), ruled 763–758 BC: son of Ruo'ao
  17. Fenmao (蚡冒) (Xiong Xuan 熊眴) ruled 757–741 BC: son of Xiao'ao
Kings
  1. King Wu of Chu (楚武王) (Xiong Da 熊達), ruled 740–690 BC: either younger brother or younger son of Fenmao, murdered son of Fenmao and usurped the throne. Declared himself first king of Chu.
  2. King Wen of Chu (楚文王) (Xiong Zi 熊貲), ruled 689–677 BC: son of King Wu, moved the capital to Ying
  3. Du'ao (堵敖) or Zhuang'ao (莊敖) (Xiong Jian 熊艱), ruled 676–672 BC: son of King Wen, killed by younger brother, the future King Cheng
  4. King Cheng of Chu (楚成王) (Xiong Yun 熊惲), ruled 671–626 BC: brother of Du'ao, defeated by the state of Jin at the Battle of Chengpu. Husband to Zheng Mao. He was murdered by his son, the future King Mu
  5. King Mu of Chu (楚穆王) (Xiong Shangchen 熊商臣) ruled 625–614 BC: son of King Cheng
  6. King Zhuang of Chu (楚莊王) (Xiong Lü 熊侶) ruled 613–591 BC: son of King Mu. Defeated the State of Jin at the Battle of Bi, and was recognized as a Hegemon.
  7. King Gong of Chu (楚共王) (Xiong Shen 熊審) ruled 590–560 BC: son of King Zhuang. Defeated by Jin at the Battle of Yanling.
  8. King Kang of Chu (楚康王) (Xiong Zhao 熊招) ruled 559–545 BC: son of King Gong
  9. Jia'ao (郟敖) (Xiong Yuan 熊員) ruled 544–541 BC: son of King Kang, murdered by his uncle, the future King Ling.
  10. King Ling of Chu (楚靈王) (Xiong Wei 熊圍, changed to Xiong Qian 熊虔) ruled 540–529 BC: uncle of Jia'ao and younger brother of King Kang, overthrown by his younger brothers and committed suicide.
  11. Zi'ao (訾敖) (Xiong Bi 熊比) ruled 529 BC (less than 20 days): younger brother of King Ling, committed suicide.
  12. King Ping of Chu (楚平王) (Xiong Qiji 熊弃疾, changed to Xiong Ju 熊居) ruled 528–516 BC: younger brother of Zi'ao, tricked Zi'ao into committing suicide.
  13. State of Sui
    .
  14. Marquis Yi of Zeng died, so he made a commemorative bell and attended the Marquis's funeral at Suizhou
    .
  15. King Jian of Chu (楚簡王) (Xiong Zhong 熊中) ruled 431–408 BC: son of King Hui
  16. King Sheng of Chu (楚聲王) (Xiong Dang 熊當) ruled 407–402 BC: son of King Jian
  17. King Dao of Chu (楚悼王) (Xiong Yi 熊疑) ruled 401–381 BC: son of King Sheng. He made Wu Qi chancellor and reformed the Chu government and army.
  18. King Su of Chu (楚肅王) (Xiong Zang 熊臧) ruled 380–370 BC: son of King Dao
  19. King Xuan of Chu (楚宣王) (Xiong Liangfu 熊良夫) ruled 369–340 BC: brother of King Su. Defeated and annexed the Zuo state around 348 BC.
  20. King Wei of Chu (楚威王) (Xiong Shang 熊商) ruled 339–329 BC: son of King Xuan. Defeated and partitioned the Yue state with Qi state.
  21. State of Qin
    until death in 296 BC
  22. King Qingxiang of Chu (楚頃襄王) (Xiong Heng 熊橫) ruled 298–263 BC: son of King Huai. As a prince, one of his elderly tutors was buried at the site of the Guodian Chu Slips in Hubei. The Chu capital of Ying was captured and sacked by Qin.
  23. Shouchun
    .
  24. King You of Chu (楚幽王) (Xiong Han 熊悍) ruled 237–228 BC: son of King Kaolie.
  25. King Ai of Chu (楚哀王) (Xiong You 熊猶 or Xiong Hao 熊郝) ruled 228 BC: brother of King You, killed by Fuchu
  26. Fuchu
    (楚王負芻) (熊負芻 Xiong Fuchu) ruled 227–223 BC: brother of King Ai. Captured by Qin troops and deposed
  27. Lord Changping (昌平君) ruled 223 BC (Chu conquered by Qin): brother of Fuchu, killed in battle against Qin
Others
  • Chen Sheng (陳勝) as King Yin of Chu (楚隱王) ruled 210–209 BC
  • Jing Ju (景駒) as King Jia of Chu 楚假王 (Jia for fake) ruled 209–208 BC
  • Xiong Xin (熊心) as Emperor Yi of Chu (楚義帝) (originally King Huai II 楚後懷王) ruled 208–206 BC: grandson or great-grandson of King Huai
  • Xiang Yu (項羽) as Hegemon-King of Western Chu (西楚霸王) ruled 206–202 BC

People

Astronomy

Main article: Chinese constellations

In traditional

symbol. Opinions differ, however, as to whether that star is Phi[43] or 24 Capricorni.[44] It is also represented by the star Epsilon Ophiuchi in the "Right Wall" asterism in the "Heavenly Market" enclosure.[45][46]

Biology

The virus taxa Chuviridae and Jingchuvirales are named after Chǔ.[47]

See also

References

Citations

  1. ^ "楚都丹陽". Archived from the original on 2011-07-07.
  2. ^ "Chu". Encyclopedia Britannica. 3 November 2023.
  3. ^ Baxter & Sagart (2014), p. 332.
  4. ^ "河南库区发掘工作圆满结束，出土文物已通过验收". 合肥晚报. 2011-01-25. Archived from the original on 2011-07-11.
  5. ^ "科大考古队觅宝千余件". 凤凰网. 2011-01-25. Archived from the original on 2018-09-30. Retrieved 2011-02-17.
  6. ^ Theobald, Ulrich. (2018) "The Regional State of Chu 楚" in ChinaKnowledge.de - An Encyclopaedia on Chinese History, Literature and Art
  7. ^ Zhang, Zhengming. (2019) A History Of Chu (Volume 1) Honolulu: Enrich Professional Publishing. p. 46-47
  8. ^ a b c Sima Qian. "楚世家 (House of Chu)". Records of the Grand Historian (in Chinese). Archived from the original on 10 March 2012. Retrieved 3 December 2011.
  9. ^ "Yu Ding: Evidence of the Extermination of the State of E during the Western Zhou Dynasty (禹鼎：西周灭鄂国的见证)" (in Chinese). Archived from the original on 4 August 2012. Retrieved 23 October 2010.
  10. ^ Lothar von Falkenahausen in Cambridge History of Ancient China, 1999, page 516
  11. Cho-Yun Hsu
    in Cambridge History of Ancient China, 1999, page 556
  12. Zuo zhuan, twelfth year of Duke Xi of Lu
    《左傳·僖公十二年》: "黃人恃諸侯之睦于齊也，不共楚職，曰，自郢及我，九百里，焉能害我。夏，楚滅黃。 'The people of Huang, relying on the friendship of the States with Qi, did not render the tribute which was due from them to Chu, saying "From Ying [the capital of Chu] to us is 900 li; what harm can Chu do to us?" This summer, Chu extinguished Huang."
  13. ^
    ISBN 9787101012187
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  14. ^ Brindley (2015), p. 86.
  15. ^ a b Li and Zheng, page 188
  16. ^ "The Warring States" (in Chinese). Retrieved 4 October 2010.
  17. ^ Traditionally taken to be the Qu (屈), Jing (景), and Zhao (昭).
  18. ^ Sima Qian. Records of the Grand Historian, "Biography of Xiang Yu" (項羽本紀).
  19. ISBN 0824818857
    .
  20. ISBN 0824818857
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  21. ISBN 0824818857
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  22. ISBN 9781604979626
    .
  23. ^ a b Walker, Hera S. (September 1998). "Indigenous or Foreign? A Look at the Origins of the Monkey Hero Sun Wukong" (PDF). Sino-Platonic Papers. University of Pennsylvania. pp. 53–54.
  24. ISBN 9789866528071
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  25. ^ Yù, Suíshēng (1993). Liăng-Zhōu jīnwén yùnwén he xiān-Qín 'Chŭ-yīn (2 ed.). Journal of Chuxiong Teacher's College. pp. 105–109.[permanent dead link]
  26. ISSN 1877-0428
    .
  27. ^ Tian, Jizhou (1989). "Chuguo ji qi minzu (The country of Chu and its nationalities)". Zhongguo Minzushi Yanjiu. 2: 1–17.
  28. ^ Behr 2009.
  29. ^ Chamberlain 2016, p. 67.
  30. ^ You Rujie 1992, Dong Kun 2006 etc.
  31. ^ Ye, Xiaofeng (2014). "上古楚语中的南亚语成分 (Austroasiatic elements in ancient Chu dialect)" (PDF). Minzu Yuwen. 3: 28–36. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2021-01-14. Retrieved 2020-09-09.
  32. ^ Schuessler, Axel. 2007. An Etymological Dictionary of Old Chinese. University of Hawaii Press. p. 193, 316-7
  33. ^ Shorto, H. A Mon-Khmer Comparative Dictionary, Ed. Paul Sidwell, 2006. #205. p. 115
  34. ISBN 9789867938176
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  35. ISBN 9787501346158
    .
  36. ^ Tian, Chengfang (Autumn 2008). "從新出文字材料論楚沈尹氏之族屬源流". Jianbo(简帛). Archived from the original on 2015-02-06. Retrieved 2017-09-28 – via 简帛网.
  37. ^ Hong, Gang (2012). 财政史研究. 中国财政经济出版社.
  38. ^ a b Gongyang Zhuan, Duke Wen, 6th year of, Duke Xuan, 8th year of
  39. ^ Anhui Provincial Institute (2015), p. 83.
  40. ^ See also, the Tsinghua Bamboo Slips.
  41. ^ a b Ziju (子居). 清华简《楚居》解析 (in Chinese). jianbo.org. Archived from the original on 2 December 2013. Retrieved 10 April 2012.
  42. Shiji calls him Xiong Zhihong (熊摯紅), and says his younger Xiong Yan killed him and usurped the throne. However, Zuo Zhuan and Guoyu
    both say that Xiong Zhi abdicated due to illness and was succeeded by brother Xiong Yan. Shiji also says he was the younger brother of Xiong Kang, but historians generally agree that he was the son of Xiong Kang.
  43. ^ Activities of Exhibition and Education in Astronomy. "天文教育資訊網 Archived 2011-05-22 at the Wayback Machine". 4 Jul 2006. (in Chinese)
  44. ^ Allen, Richard. "Star Names – Their Lore and Meaning: Capricornus".
  45. ^ "Richard Hinckley Allen: Star Names – Their Lore and Meaning: Ophiuchus". penelope.uchicago.edu. Retrieved 23 October 2015.
  46. ^ AEEA. "天文教育資訊網 Archived 2011-05-22 at the Wayback Machine". 24 Jun 2006. (in Chinese)
  47. ^ Wolf, Yuri; Krupovic, Mart; Zhang, Yong Zhen; Maes, Piet; Dolja, Valerian; Koonin, Eugene V.; Kuhn, Jens H. "Megataxonomy of negative-sense RNA viruses". International Committee on Taxonomy of Viruses (ICTV). Archived from the original (docx) on 13 January 2019. Retrieved 12 January 2019.

Sources

Further reading

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