Cistercians
(Sacer) Ordo Cisterciensis | |
Catholic religious order | |
Headquarters | Piazza del Tempio di Diana, 14 Rome, Italy |
---|---|
Abbot General | Mauro-Giuseppe Lepori |
Parent organization | Catholic Church |
Website | www |
The Cistercians (
The term Cistercian derives from Cistercium,[2] the Latin name for the locale of Cîteaux, near Dijon in eastern France. It was here that a group of Benedictine monks from the monastery of Molesme founded Cîteaux Abbey in 1098, with the goal of following more closely the Rule of Saint Benedict. The best known of them were Robert of Molesme, Alberic of Cîteaux and the English monk Stephen Harding, who were the first three abbots. Bernard of Clairvaux entered the monastery in the early 1110s with 30 companions and helped the founding of the order. By the end of the 12th century, the order had spread throughout what is today France, Germany, England, Wales, Scotland, Ireland, Spain, Portugal, Italy, Scandinavia and Eastern Europe.
The keynote of Cistercian life was a return to literal observance of the Benedictine Rule. Rejecting some of the developments, the reform-minded monks tried to live monastic life as they thought it had been in Benedict's time; at various points they went beyond it in austerity. The most striking feature of the reform was the return to manual labour, especially agricultural work in the fields, a special characteristic of Cistercian life.[3] The Cistercians also made major contributions to culture and technology in medieval Europe: Cistercian architecture is considered one of the most beautiful styles of medieval architecture;[4] and the Cistercians were the main force of technological diffusion in fields such as agriculture and hydraulic engineering.
Many abbeys traditionally supported themselves through agriculture, vineyards, and brewing
History
Foundation
In 1098, a
On 21 March 1098, Robert's small group acquired a plot of
The remaining monks of Cîteaux elected Alberic as their abbot, under whose leadership the abbey would find its grounding. Robert had been the idealist of the order, and Alberic was their builder. Upon assuming the role of abbot, Alberic moved the site of the fledgling community near a brook a short distance away from the original site. Alberic discontinued the use of Benedictine black garments in the abbey and clothed the monks in white habits of undyed wool.
On 26 January 1108, Alberic died and was soon succeeded by Stephen Harding, the man responsible for carrying the order into its crucial phase.[3]
Cistercian reform
The order was fortunate that Stephen was an abbot of extraordinary gifts, and he framed the original version of the Cistercian "Constitution" or regulations: the Carta Caritatis (Charter of Charity). Although this was revised on several occasions to meet contemporary needs, from the outset it emphasised a simple life of work, love, prayer and self-denial. The Cistercians initially regarded themselves as regular Benedictines, albeit the "perfect", reformed ones, but they soon came to distinguish themselves from the monks of unreformed Benedictine communities by wearing white tunics instead of black, previously reserved for hermits, who followed the "angelic" life. Cistercian abbeys also refused to admit boy recruits, a practice later adopted by many of older Benedictine houses.[12]
Stephen acquired land for the abbey to develop to ensure its survival and ethic, the first land acquisition was
Charter of Charity
The outlines of the Cistercian reform were adumbrated by Alberic, but it received its final form in the Carta caritatis (Charter of Charity), which was the defining guide on how the reform was to be lived.
The Cistercian order maintained the independent organic life of the individual houses: each abbey having its own abbot elected by its own monks, its own community belonging to itself and not to the order in general, and its own property and finances administered without outside interference. Yet on the other hand, all the abbeys were subjected to the
High and Late Middle Ages
Spread: 1111–52
By 1111 the ranks had grown sufficiently at Cîteaux, and Stephen sent a group of 12 monks to start a "daughter house", a new community dedicated to the same ideals of the strict observance of Saint Benedict. The Cistercians were officially formed in 1112.[20] The "daughter house" was built in Chalon sur Saône in La Ferté on 13 May 1113.[21]
In the year of 1112, a charismatic young Burgundinian nobleman named Bernard arrived at Cîteaux with 35 of his relatives and friends to join the monastery. A supremely eloquent, strong-willed mystic, Bernard was to become the most admired churchman of his age.[14] In 1115, Count Hugh of Champagne gave a tract of wild, afforested land known as a refuge for robbers, forty miles east of Troyes, to the order. Bernard led twelve other monks to found the Abbey of Clairvaux, and began clearing the ground and building a church and dwelling.[22] The abbey soon attracted zealous young men.[23] At this point, Cîteaux had four daughter houses: Pontigny, Morimond, La Ferté and Clairvaux.
After Saint Bernard's entry, the Cistercian order began a notable epoch of international expansion. As his fame grew, the Cistercian movement grew with it.[14]
In 1129 Margrave
Thirteen Cistercian monasteries, all in remote locations, were founded in Wales between 1131 and 1226. The first of these was Tintern Abbey, which was sited in a remote river valley, and depended largely on its agricultural and pastoral activities for survival.[25] Other abbeys, such as at Neath, Strata Florida, Conwy and Valle Crucis became among the most hallowed names in the history of religion in medieval Wales.[26] Their austere discipline seemed to echo the ideals of the Celtic saints, and the emphasis on pastoral farming fit well into the Welsh stock-rearing economy.[26]
In
Fountains Abbey was founded in 1132 by discontented Benedictine monks from St. Mary's Abbey, York, who desired a return to the austere Rule of St Benedict. After many struggles and great hardships, St Bernard agreed to send a monk from Clairvaux to instruct them, and in the end they prospered. Already by 1152, Fountains had many offshoots, including Newminster Abbey (1137) and Meaux Abbey (1151).[4]
In the spring of 1140,
Meanwhile, the Cistercian influence more than kept pace with the material expansion.
A considerable reinforcement to the Order was the merger of the Savigniac houses with the Cistercians, at the insistence of Eugene III. Thirteen English abbeys, of which the most famous were Furness Abbey and Jervaulx Abbey, thus adopted the Cistercian formula.[4] In Dublin, the two Savigniac houses of Erenagh and St Mary's became Cistercian.[29] It was in the latter case that medieval Dublin acquired a Cistercian monastery in the very unusual suburban location of Oxmantown, with its own private harbour called The Pill.[34]
By 1152, there were 54 Cistercian monasteries in England, few of which had been founded directly from the Continent.[4] Overall, there were 333 Cistercian abbeys in Europe, so many that a halt was put to this expansion.[35] Nearly half of these houses had been founded, directly or indirectly, from Clairvaux, so great was St Bernard's influence and prestige. He later came popularly to be regarded as the founder of the Cistercians, who have often been called Bernardines.[17] Bernard died in 1153, one month after his pupil Eugene III.[36]
Later expansion
From its solid base, the order spread all over western Europe: into Germany, Bohemia, Moravia, Silesia, Croatia, Italy, Sicily,
In 1153, the first
As a consequence of the wars between the Christians and Moors on the
Calatrava was not subject to Cîteaux, but to Fitero's mother-house, the Cistercian Abbey of Morimond in Burgundy. By the end of the 13th century, it had become a major autonomous power within the Castilian state, subject only to Morimond and the Pope; with abundant resources of men and wealth, lands and castles scattered along the borders of Castile, and feudal lordship over thousands of peasants and vassals. On more than one occasion, the Order of Calatrava brought to the field a force of 1200 to 2000 knights – considerable in medieval terms. Over time, as the Reconquista neared completion, the canonical bond between Calatrava and Morimond relaxed more and more, and the knights of the order became virtually secularized, finally undergoing dissolution in the 18th–19th centuries.[38]
The first Cistercian abbey in Bohemia was founded in
Following the
By the end of the 13th century, the Cistercian houses numbered 500.[43] At the order's height in the 15th century, it would have nearly 750 houses.
It often happened that the number of lay brothers became excessive and out of proportion to the resources of the monasteries, there being sometimes as many as 200, or even 300, in a single abbey. On the other hand, in some countries, the system of lay brothers in course of time worked itself out; thus in England by the close of the 14th century it had shrunk to relatively small proportions, and in the 15th century the regimen of the English Cistercian houses tended to approximate more and more to that of the
Decline and attempted reforms
For a hundred years, until the first quarter of the 13th century, the Cistercians supplanted Cluny as the most powerful order and the chief religious influence in western Europe. But then in turn their influence began to wane, as the initiative passed to the
and elsewhere.However, some of the reasons of Cistercian decline were internal. Firstly, there was the permanent difficulty of maintaining the initial fervour of a body embracing hundreds of monasteries and thousands of monks, spread all over Europe. The very raison d'être of the Cistercian order consisted of its being a reform, by means of a return to primitive monasticism with its agricultural labour and austere simplicity. Therefore, any failures to live up to the proposed ideal was more detrimental among Cistercians than among Benedictines, who were intended to live a life of self-denial but not of particular austerity.[17]
Relaxations were gradually introduced into Cistercian life with regard to diet and to simplicity of life, and also in regard to the sources of income, rents and tolls being admitted and benefices incorporated, as was done among the Benedictines. The farming operations tended to produce a commercial spirit; wealth and splendour invaded many of the monasteries, and the choir monks abandoned manual labour. The later history of the Cistercians is largely one of attempted revivals and reforms. For a long time, the General Chapter continued to battle bravely against the invasion of relaxations and abuses.[17]
In Ireland, the information on the Cistercian Order after the Anglo-Norman invasion gives a rather gloomy impression.[45] Absenteeism among Irish abbots at the General Chapter became a persistent and much criticised problem in the 13th century, and escalated into the conspiratio Mellifontis, a "rebellion" by the abbeys of the Mellifont filiation. Visitors were appointed to reform Mellifont on account of the multa enormia that had arisen there, but in 1217 the abbot refused their admission and had lay brothers bar the abbey gates. There was also trouble at Jerpoint, and alarmingly, the abbots of Baltinglass, Killenny, Kilbeggan and Bective supported the actions of the "revolt".[46]
In 1228, the General Chapter sent the Abbot of Stanley in Wiltshire, Stephen of Lexington, on a well-documented visitation to reform the Irish houses.[47] A graduate of both Oxford and Paris, and a future Abbot of Clairvaux (to be appointed in 1243), Stephen was one of the outstanding figures in 13th-century Cistercian history. He found his life threatened, his representatives attacked and his party harassed, while the three key houses of Mellifont, Suir and Maigue had been fortified by their monks to hold out against him.[48] However, with the help of his assistants, the core of obedient Irish monks and the aid of both English and Irish secular powers, he was able to envisage the reconstruction of the Cistercian province in Ireland.[49] Stephen dissolved the Mellifont filiation altogether, and subjected 15 monasteries to houses outside Ireland.[45] In breadth and depth, his instructions constituted a radical reform programme: "They were intended to put an end to abuses, restore the full observance of the Cistercian way of life, safeguard monastic properties, initiate a regime of benign paternalism to train a new generation of religious, isolate trouble-makers and institute an effective visitation system."[50] The arrangement lasted almost half a century, and in 1274, the filiation of Mellifont was reconstituted.[51]
In Germany the Cistercians were instrumental in the spread of Christianity east of the Elbe. They developed grants of territories of 180,000 acres where they would drain land, build monasteries and plan villages. Many towns near Berlin owe their origins to this order, including Heiligengrabe and Chorin; its Chorin Abbey was the first brick-built monastery in the area.[52] By this time, however, "the Cistercian order as a whole had experienced a gradual decline and its central organisation was noticeably weakened."[51]
In 1335, the French cardinal Jacques Fournier, a former Cistercian monk and the son of a miller, was elected and consecrated
By the 15th century, however, of all the orders in Ireland, the Cistercians had most comprehensively fallen on evil days. The General Chapter lost virtually all its power to enforce its will in Ireland, and the strength of the order which derived from this uniformity declined. In 1496, there were efforts to establish a strong national congregation to assume this role in Ireland, but monks of the English and Irish "nations" found themselves unable to cooperate for the good of the order. The General Chapter appointed special reformatores, but their efforts proved fruitless. One such reformer, Abbot John Troy of Mellifont, despaired of finding any solution to the ruin of the order.[55] According to his detailed report to the General Chapter, the monks of only two monasteries, Dublin and Mellifont, kept the rule or even wore the habit.[56] He identified the causes of this decline as the ceaseless wars and hatred between the two nations; a lack of leadership; and the control of many of the monasteries by secular dynasties who appointed their own relatives to positions.[57]
In the 15th century, various popes endeavoured to promote reforms. All these efforts at a reform of the great body of the order proved unavailing; but local reforms, producing various semi-independent offshoots and congregations, were successfully carried out in many parts in the course of the 15th and 16th centuries.[17]
Protestant Reformation
During the
After the Reformation
In the 16th century had arisen the reformed
In the 17th century another great effort at a general reform was made, promoted by the pope and the king of France; the general chapter elected Richelieu (commendatory) abbot of Cîteaux, thinking he would protect them from the threatened reform. In this they were disappointed, for he threw himself wholly on the side of reform. So great, however, was the resistance, and so serious the disturbances that ensued, that the attempt to reform Cîteaux itself and the general body of the houses had again to be abandoned, and only local projects of reform could be carried out.[17]
The
In 1892, the Trappists left the Cistercians and founded a new order, named the Order of Cistercians of the Strict Observance.[62] The Cistercians that remained within the original order thus came to be known as the "Common Observance".[17]
Influence
Architecture
Cistercian architecture has made an important contribution to European civilisation. Architecturally speaking, the Cistercian monasteries and churches, owing to their pure style, may be counted among the most beautiful relics of the Middle Ages.[4] Cistercian foundations were primarily constructed in Romanesque and Gothic architecture during the Middle Ages; although later abbeys were also constructed in Renaissance and Baroque.[citation needed]
Theological principles
In the mid-12th century, one of the leading churchmen of his day, the Benedictine
This new Cistercian architecture embodied the ideals of the order, and was in theory at least utilitarian and without superfluous ornament.
Engineering and construction
The building projects of the Church in the High Middle Ages showed an ambition for the colossal, with vast amounts of stone being quarried, and the same was true of the Cistercian projects.[69] Foigny Abbey was 98 metres (322 ft) long, and Vaucelles Abbey was 132 metres (433 ft) long.[69] Monastic buildings came to be constructed entirely of stone, right down to the most humble of buildings. In the 12th and 13th centuries, Cistercian barns consisted of a stone exterior, divided into nave and aisles either by wooden posts or by stone piers.[70]
The Cistercians acquired a reputation in the difficult task of administering the building sites for abbeys and cathedrals.
The Cistercians "made it a point of honour to recruit the best stonecutters", and as early as 1133, St. Bernard was hiring workers to help the monks erect new buildings at Clairvaux.[72] It is from the 12th century Byland Abbey in Yorkshire that the oldest recorded example of architectural tracing is found.[73] Tracings were architectural drawings incised and painted in stone, to a depth of 2–3 mm, showing architectural detail to scale.[73] The first tracing in Byland illustrates a west rose window, while the second depicts the central part of that same window.[73] Later, an illustration from the latter half of the 16th century would show monks working alongside other craftsmen in the construction of Schönau Abbey.[72]
Legacy
The Cistercian abbeys of
The abbeys of France and England are fine examples of Romanesque and Gothic architecture. The architecture of Fontenay has been described as "an excellent illustration of the ideal of self-sufficiency" practised by the earliest Cistercian communities.[74] The abbeys of 12th century England were stark and undecorated – a dramatic contrast with the elaborate churches of the wealthier Benedictine houses – yet to quote Warren Hollister, "even now the simple beauty of Cistercian ruins such as Fountains and Rievaulx, set in the wilderness of Yorkshire, is deeply moving".[14]
In the purity of architectural style, the beauty of materials and the care with which the Alcobaça Monastery was built,[76] Portugal possesses one of the most outstanding and best preserved examples of Early Gothic.[79] Poblet Monastery, one of the largest in Spain, is considered similarly impressive for its austerity, majesty, and the fortified royal residence within.[77]
The fortified Maulbronn Abbey in Germany is considered "the most complete and best-preserved medieval monastic complex north of the Alps".[78] The Transitional Gothic style of its church had a major influence in the spread of Gothic architecture over much of northern and central Europe, and the abbey's elaborate network of drains, irrigation canals and reservoirs has since been recognised as having "exceptional" cultural interest.[78]
In Poland, the former Cistercian monastery of
Art
The mother house of the order, Cîteaux, had developed the most advanced style of painting in France, at least in illuminated manuscripts, during the first decades of the 12th century, playing an important part in the development of the image of the Tree of Jesse. However, as Bernard of Clairvaux, who had a personal violent hostility to imagery, increased in influence in the order, painting and decoration gradually diminished in Cistercian manuscripts, and they were finally banned altogether in the order, probably from the revised rules approved in 1154. Any wall paintings that may have existed were presumably destroyed. Crucifixes were allowed, and later some painting and decoration crept back in.[80] Bernard's outburst in a letter against the fantastical decorative motifs in Romanesque art is famous:
...But these are small things; I will pass on to matters greater in themselves, yet seeming smaller because they are more usual. I say naught of the vast height of your churches, their immoderate length, their superfluous breadth, the costly polishings, the curious carvings and paintings which attract the worshipper's gaze and hinder his attention.... But in the cloister, under the eyes of the Brethern who read there, what profit is there in those ridiculous monsters, in the marvellous and deformed comeliness, that comely deformity? To what purpose are those unclean apes, those fierce lions, those monstrous centaurs, those half-men, those striped tigers, those fighting knights, those hunters winding their horns? Many bodies are there seen under one head, or again, many heads to a single body. Here is a four-footed beast with a serpent's tail; there, a fish with a beast's head. Here again the forepart of a horse trails half a goat behind it, or a horned beast bears the hinder quarters of a horse. In short, so many and so marvellous are the varieties of divers shapes on every hand, that we are more tempted to read in the marble than in our books, and to spend the whole day in wondering at these things rather than in meditating the law of God. For God's sake, if men are not ashamed of these follies, why at least do they not shrink from the expense?
— [81]
Some Cistercian abbeys did contain later medieval
Furthermore, many Cistercian abbey churches housed the tombs of royal or noble patrons, and these were often as elaborately carved and painted as in other churches. Notable dynastic burial places were Alcobaça for the
Commercial enterprise and technological diffusion
According to one modern Cistercian, "enterprise and entrepreneurial spirit" have always been a part of the order's identity, and the Cistercians "were catalysts for development of a market economy" in 12th-century Europe.[85] It was as agriculturists and horse and cattle breeders that the Cistercians exercised their chief influence on the progress of civilisation in the Middle Ages. As the great farmers of those days, many of the improvements in the various farming operations were introduced and propagated by them, and this is where the importance of their extension in northern Europe is to be estimated. They developed an organised system for selling their farm produce, cattle and horses, and notably contributed to the commercial progress of the countries of western Europe.[3] To the wool and cloth trade, which was especially fostered by the Cistercians, England was largely indebted for the beginnings of her commercial prosperity.[4]
Farming operations on so extensive a scale could not be carried out by the monks alone, whose choir and religious duties took up a considerable portion of their time; and so from the beginning the system of
Until the
The Cistercian order was innovative in developing techniques of
The Cistercians are known to have been skilled metallurgists, and knowledge of their technological advances was transmitted by the order.[90] Iron ore deposits were often donated to the monks along with forges to extract the iron, and within time surpluses were being offered for sale. The Cistercians became the leading iron producers in Champagne, from the mid-13th century to the 17th century, also using the phosphate-rich slag from their furnaces as an agricultural fertiliser.[91] As the historian Alain Erlande-Brandenburg writes:
The quality of Cistercian architecture from the 1120s onwards is related directly to the Order's technological inventiveness. They placed importance on metal, both the extraction of the ore and its subsequent processing. At the abbey of Fontenay the forge is not outside, as one might expect, but inside the monastic enclosure: metalworking was thus part of the activity of the monks and not of the lay brothers. This spirit accounted for the progress that appeared in spheres other than building, and particularly in agriculture. It is probable that this experiment spread rapidly; Gothic architecture cannot be understood otherwise.
— [92]
Theology
By far the most influential of the early Cistercians was Bernard of Clairvaux. According to the historian Piers Paul Read, his vocation to the order, by deciding "to choose the narrowest gate and steepest path to the Kingdom of Heaven at Citeaux demonstrates the purity of his vocation".[93] His piety and asceticism "qualified him to act as the conscience of Christendom, constantly chastising the rich and powerful and championing the pure and weak."[31] He rebuked the moderate and conciliatory Abbot Peter the Venerable for the pleasant life of the Benedictine monks of Cluny.[93] Besides his piety, Bernard was an outstanding intellectual, which he demonstrated in his sermons on Grace, Free will and the Song of Songs.[31] He perceived the attraction of evil not simply as lying in the obvious lure of wealth and worldly power, but in the "subtler and ultimately more pernicious attraction of false ideas".[31] He was quick to recognise heretical ideas, and in 1141 and 1145 respectively, he accused the celebrated scholastic theologian Peter Abelard and the popular preacher Henry of Lausanne of heresy.[31] He was also charged with the task of promulgating Pope Eugene's bull, Quantum praedecessores, and his eloquence in preaching the Second Crusade had the desired effect: when he finished his sermon, so many men were ready to take the Cross that Bernard had to cut his habit into strips of cloth.[94]
Although Bernard's De laude novae militiae was in favour of the
City growth
A 2016 study suggested that "English counties that were more exposed to Cistercian monasteries experienced faster productivity growth from the 13th century onwards" and that this influence lasts beyond the dissolution of the monasteries in the 1530s.[97] It has been maintained that this was because the Order's lifestyle and supposed pursuit of wealth were early manifestations of the Protestant work ethic, which has also been associated with city growth.[98][99]
Present day
Abbots General
Before the French Revolution the Abbot of Citeaux was automatically supreme head of the order. The first abbot was
- 63. 1814–1820: Raimondo Giovannini
- 64. 1820–1825: Sisto Benigni
- 65. 1825–1826: Giuseppe Fontana
- 66. 1826–1830: Vescelaso Vasini
- 67. 1830–1845: Sixtus Benigni
- 68. 1845–1850: Livio Fabretti
- 69. 1850–1853: Tomaso Mossi
- 70. 1853–1856: Angelo Geniani
- 71. 1856–1880: Theobald Cesari
- 72. 1880–1890: Gregorio Bartolini
- 73. 1891–1900: Leopold Wackarž (Hohenfurth Abbey)
- 74. 1900–1920: Amadeus de Bie (Bornem Abbey)
- 75. 1920–1927: Cassian Haid (Territorial Abbey of Wettingen-Mehrerau)
- 76. 1927–1936: Franciscus Janssens (Achel Abbey)
- 77. 1936–1950: Edmondus Bernardini (Santa Croce Abbey)
- 78. 1950–1953: Mattheus Quatember
- 79. 1953–1985: Sighard Kleiner
- 80. 1985–1995: Ferenc Polikárp Zakar (Zirc Abbey)
- 81. 1995–2010: Royal Abbey of Santa Maria de Poblet)
- 82. 2010–current: Mauro-Giuseppe Lepori (Hauterive Abbey)[101]
Monastic life
At the time of
functional communication at work or in community discussion, spiritual exchange with one's superiors or spiritual adviser on different aspects of one's personal life, and spontaneous conversation on special occasions. These forms of communication are integrated into the discipline of maintaining a general atmosphere of silence, which is an important help to continual prayer.[102]
Many Cistercian monasteries make produce goods such as cheese, bread and other foodstuffs. In the United States, many Cistercian monasteries support themselves through agriculture, forestry and rental of farmland. The Cistercian Abbey of Our Lady of Spring Bank, in Sparta, Wisconsin, from 2001 to 2011 supported itself with a group called "Laser Monks", which provided laser toner and ink jet cartridges, as well as items such as gourmet coffees and all-natural dog treats.[85][103] Additionally, the Cistercian monks of Our Lady of Dallas monastery run the Cistercian Preparatory School, a Catholic school for boys in Irving, Texas.
Cistercian nuns
There are a large number of
The nuns have also followed the division into different orders as seen among the monks. Those who follow the Trappist reforms of De Rancé are called
Non-Catholic Cistercians
Since 2010 there is also a branch of Anglican Cistercians in England, and in Wales since 2017.[106] This is a dispersed and uncloistered order of single, celibate, and married men officially recognized by the Church of England. The Order enjoys an ecumenical link with the Order of Cistercians of the Strict Observance.[citation needed]
There are also Cistercians of the Lutheran church residing in Amelungsborn Abbey and Loccum Abbey.[citation needed]
See also
- Cistercian numerals
- List of Cistercian monasteries
- Monastic sign languages
- Nomasticon Cisterciense
- Trappists
- Notre Dame de Roscudon Church
- Abbey of Notre-Dame de Langonnet
Notes
- ^ Oxford English Dictionary (1989).
- ^ The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language, 3rd ed., 1992.
- ^ a b c d Butler 1911, p. 393.
- ^ a b c d e f g Herbert Thurston. "Cistercians in the British Isles". Catholic Encyclopedia. NewAdvent.org. Retrieved 18 June 2008.
- ^ OCist.Hu – A Ciszterci Rend Zirci Apátsága (31 December 2002). "History". OCist.Hu. Retrieved 9 March 2011.
- ^ Read, p 94
- ^ "Stephen Harding, St. | Encyclopedia.com". www.encyclopedia.com. Retrieved 21 November 2021.
- ^ Tobin, pp 29, 33, 36.
- ^ Read, pp 94–95
- ^ Gildas, Marie. "Cistercians." The Catholic Encyclopedia Vol. 3. New York: Robert Appleton Company, 1908. 21 January 2020 This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the public domain.
- ^ Tobin, pp 37–38.
- ^ a b Hollister, p 209
- ^ Hollister, p 209–10
- ^ a b c d Hollister, p 210
- ^ "Latin text". Users.skynet.be. Archived from the original on 3 March 2016. Retrieved 18 January 2010.
- ^ Migne, Patrol. Lat. clxvi. 1377
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n Butler 1911, p. 394.
- ^ Watt, p 52
- F. A. Gasquet, Sketch of Monastic Constitutional History, pp. xxxv–xxxviii, prefixed to English trans. Of Montalembert's Monks of the West, ed. 1895
- ISBN 978-1-592-40464-3.
- ^ Tobin, pp 46
- ^ Read, p 93, 95
- ^ Read, p. 95
- ^ Rein, Zisterzienserstift. "Welt-ältestes Zisterzienserkloster Stift Rein seit 1129". www.stift-rein.at.
- ^ Dykes, pp 76–78
- ^ a b c Roderick, p 164
- ^ Michael Barrett (1 October 1911). "Abbey of Melrose". Catholic Encyclopedia. Retrieved 18 January 2010.
- ^ Watt, p. 20
- ^ a b Watt, p 21
- ^ Watt, pp 17–18
- ^ a b c d e Read, p 118
- ^ Read, pp 117–118
- ^ Read, p. 117
- ^ Clarke, pp 42–43
- ^ Logan, p 139
- ^ Read, p 126
- ^ Toman, p 98
- ^ a b Charles Moeller (1 November 1908). "Military Order of Calatrava". Catholic Encyclopedia. Retrieved 18 January 2010.
- ^ Watt, pp 49–50
- ^ Watt, p 50
- ^ Watt, p 115
- ^ a b Doran, p 53
- ^ "Cistercian Order of the Strict Observance (Trappists): Frequently Asked Questions". Ocso.org. 8 December 2003. Archived from the original on 17 September 2009. Retrieved 18 January 2010.
- ^ Lalor, p 200
- ^ a b Richter, p 154
- ^ Watt, p. 53
- ^ Watt, p. 55
- ^ Watt, p. 56
- ^ Watt, pp. 56–57
- ^ Watt, p. 59
- ^ a b Richter, p. 155
- ^ Richie, p. 21
- ^ Rendina, p. 376
- ^ Rendina, p. 375
- ^ Watt, p 187
- ^ Watt, pp. 187–188
- ^ Watt, p. 188
- ^ Woods, p 37
- ^ R. W. Vernon, G. McDonnell and A. Schmidt, 'An integrated geophysical and analytical appraisal of early iron-working: three case studies' Historical Metallurgy 31(2) (1998), 72–5 79
- ^ a b David Derbyshire, 'Henry "Stamped Out Industrial Revolution"', The Daily Telegraph (21 June 2002); cited by Woods, p 37.
- Earl of Rutlandin 1541 refers to blooms. H. R. Schubert, History of the British iron and steel industry from c. 450 BC to AD 1775 (Routledge, London 1957), 395–7.
- ^ Alcuin Schachenmayr and Polycarp Zakar: Union And Division: The Proceedings of the Three Trappist Congregations at their General Chapter in 1892. In: Analecta Cisterciensia 56 (2006) 334–384.
- ^ Toman, pp 8–9
- ^ Toman, p 9
- ^ Toman, p 14
- ^ a b Toman, p 10
- ^ a b c d Lalor, p 1
- ^ Lalor, p 1, 38
- ^ a b Erlande-Brandenburg, p 32–34
- ^ Erlande-Brandenburg, p 28
- ^ a b c d Erlande-Brandenburg, p 50
- ^ a b Erlande-Brandenburg, p 101
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References
- "Art and Architecture: Cistercian", The Oxford Dictionary of the Middle Ages, 4 v. (Oxford University Press, Oxford, 2010) v. 1, pp. 157–158.[ISBN missing]
- Baury, Ghislain, "Emules puis sujettes de l'ordre cistercien. Les cisterciennes de Castille et d'ailleurs face au Chapitre Général aux XIIe et XIIIe siècles", Cîteaux: Commentarii cistercienses, t. 52, fasc. 1–2, 2001, pp. 27–60.
- Baury, Ghislain, Les religieuses de Castille. Patronage aristocratique et ordre cistercien, XIIe-XIIIe siècles, Rennes, Presses Universitaires de Rennes, 2012.
- Bruun, Mette Birkedal, ed. (2013). The Cambridge Companion to the Cistercian Order. ISBN 978-0-521-17184-7.
- public domain: Butler, Edward Cuthbert (1911). "Cistercians". In Chisholm, Hugh (ed.). Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 6 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 393–395. This article incorporates text from a publication now in the
- Cawley, Martinus (1988). A Folk Geography of Cistercian U.S.A. Guadalupe Translations.[ISBN missing]
- Clarke, Howard B.; Dent, Sarah; Johnson, Ruth (2002). Dublinia: The Story of Medieval Dublin. Dublin: O'Brien. ISBN 978-0-86278-785-1.
- ISBN 0-300-06493-4
- Doran, Linda; Lyttleton, James, eds. (2008). Lordship in Medieval Ireland: Image and reality (Hardback, illustrated ed.). Four Courts Press. ISBN 978-1-84682-041-0.
- Dykes, D.W. (1980). ISBN 978-0-7200-0228-7.
- ISBN 978-0-500-30052-7.
- Gimpel, Jean, The Medieval Machine: The Industrial Revolution of the Middle Ages New York, Penguin, (1976)[ISBN missing]
- Hollister, C. Warren (1992) [1966]. The Making of England, 55 BC to 1399. Volume I of A History of England, edited by Lacey Baldwin Smith (6th ed.). ISBN 978-0-669-24457-1.
- Lalor, Brian, ed. (2003). The Encyclopedia of Ireland. ISBN 978-0-7171-3000-9.
- Logan, F. Donald, A History of the Church in the Middle Ages.[ISBN missing]
- Rendina, Claudio (2002). The Popes: Histories and Secrets. translated by Paul McCusker. Seven Locks Press. ISBN 978-1-931643-13-9.
- Richie, Alexandra, Faust's Metropolis – A History of Berlin, Harper and Collins (1998)
- Richter, Michael (2005). Medieval Ireland: the enduring tradition (Revised, illustrated ed.). ISBN 978-0-7171-3293-5.
- Rudolph, Conrad, "The 'Principal Founders' and the Early Artistic Legislation of Cîteaux", Studies in Cistercian Art and Architecture 3, Cistercian Studies Series 89 (1987) 1–45
- Rudolph, Conrad, The "Things of Greater Importance": Bernard of Clairvaux's Apologia and the Medieval Attitude Toward Art (1990)
- Rudolph, Conrad, Violence and Daily Life: Reading, Art, and Polemics in the Cîteaux Moralia in Job (1997)[ISBN missing]
- Tobin, Stephen. The Cistercians: Monks and Monasteries in Europe. The Herbert Press, LTD (1995). ISBN 1-871569-80-X.
- Toman, Rolf, ed. (2007). The Art of Gothic: Architecture, Sculpture, Painting. photography by Achim Bednorz. ISBN 978-3-8331-4676-3.
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External links
- Official website
- Website on Cistercian Order, Architecture and History (Italian)
- Newadvent.org, Catholic Encyclopedia
- EUCist News, a blog about current Cistercian research in English and German
- Carta Caritatis Archived 3 March 2016 at the Wayback Machine (Latin)
- Center for Cistercian and Monastic Studies
- European route of Cistercian abbeys