Civilizing mission

Source: Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia.

The civilizing mission (

primitive cultures.[citation needed
]

Origins

The civilizing mission originated in the Christian theology of the

human development to misrepresent[citation needed] social change as a law of Nature. In the eighteenth century, Europeans saw history as a linear, inevitable, and perpetual process of sociocultural evolution led by capitalist Western Europe.[8] From the reductionist cultural perspective of Western Europe, colonialists saw non-Europeans as "backward nations", as people intrinsically incapable of socioeconomic progress. In France, the philosopher Marquis de Condorcet formally postulated the existence of a European "holy duty" to help non-European peoples "which, to civilize themselves, wait only to receive the means from us, to find brothers among Europeans, and to become their friends and disciples".[9]

Modernization theory — progressive transition from

development criticism sees economic development as a continuation of the civilizing mission. That to become civilized invariably means to become more "like us", therefore "civilizing a people" means that every society must become a capitalist consumer society, by renouncing their native culture to become Westernized.[14] Cultivation of land and people has been a similarly employed concept, used instead of civilizing in German speaking colonial contexts to press for colonization and cultural imperialism through "extensive cultivation" and "culture work".[15]

According to Jennifer Pitts, there was considerable skepticism among French and British liberal thinkers (such as Adam Smith, Jeremy Bentham, Edmund Burke, Denis Diderot and Marquis de Condorcet) about empire in the 1780s. However, by the mid-19th century, liberal thinkers such as John Stuart Mill and Alexis de Tocqueville endorsed empire on the basis of the civilizing mission.[16]

By state

British colonialism

Although the British did not invent the term, the notion of a "civilizing mission" was equally important for them to justify colonialism. It was used to legitimatize British rule over the colonized, especially when the colonial enterprise was not very profitable.[2]

The British used

their sports as a tool to spread their values and culture among native populations, as well as a way of emphasizing their own dominance, as they were the owners of the rules of these sports and were naturally more experienced at playing these games. Test cricket, for example, was seen as a sport that inherently involved values of fair play and civilizedness. In some cases, British sports served a purpose of providing exercise and integration across social boundaries for native populations.[17] The growth of British sports led to a natural decline of the colonized peoples' sports, creating fear amongst some that a loss of their native culture might hamper their ability to resist colonial rule. Over time, colonized peoples ended up seeing British sports as a venue to prove their equality to the British, and victories against the British in sports gave momentum to nascent independence movements.[18][19][20]

The idea that the British were bringing civilization to the uncivilized areas of the world is famously expressed in Rudyard Kipling's poem The White Man's Burden.

French colonialism

Alice Conklin explained in her works that the French colonial empire coincided with the apparently opposite concept of "Republic".[citation needed]

Dutch colonialism

American colonialism

The concept of a "civilizing mission" would also be adopted by the

McKinley administration would declare that the US position within the Philippines was to “oversee the establishment of a civilian government” on the model of the United States.[21] That would be done through adopting a civilizing process that would entail a "medical reformation" and other socioeconomic reforms.[22] The Spanish health system had broken down after the 1898 war and was replaced with an American military model, which was made up of public health institutions.[23] The "medical reformation" was done with "military rigor"[23] as part of a civilizing process in which American public health officers set out to train native Filipinos the "correct techniques of the body."[24] The process of "rationalized hygiene" was a technique for colonizing in the Philippines, as part of the American physicists assurance that the colonized Philippines was inhabited with propriety. Other "sweeping reforms and ambitious public works projects" [25] would include the implementation of a free public school system, as well as architecture to develop "economic growth and civilizing influence" as an important component of McKinley's "benevolent assimilation."[26]

Similar "civilizing" tactics were also incorporated into the American colonization of Puerto Rico in 1900. They would include extensive reform such as the legalization of divorce in 1902 in an attempt to instill American social mores into the island’s populace to "legitimatize the emerging colonial order."[27]

Purported benefits for the colonized nation included "greater exploitation of natural resources, increased production of material goods, raised living standards, expanded market profitability and sociopolitical stability". [28]

However, the occupation of Haiti in 1915 would also show a darker side to the American "civilizing mission." The historian Mary Renda has argued that the occupation of Haiti was solely for the "purposes of economic exploitation and strategic advantage,"[29] rather than to provide Haiti with "protection, education and economic support."[30]

Portuguese colonialism

After consolidating its territory in the 13th century through a

Muslim lands and the desire of nobility for epic acts of war and conquest with the support of the Pope
.

As the Portuguese extended their influence around the coast to

cloth, tools, wine and horses. Trade goods soon also included arms and ammunition. In exchange, the Portuguese received gold (transported from mines of the Akan deposits), pepper (a trade which lasted until Vasco da Gama reached India in 1498) and ivory. It was not until they reached the Kongo
coast in the 1480s that they moved beyond Muslim trading territory in Africa.

Forts and

Company of Guinea
was founded as a Portuguese governmental institution to control the trade, and called Casa da Guiné or Casa da Guiné e Mina from 1482 to 1483, and Casa da Índia e da Guiné in 1499.

The first of the major European trading

processes which were to become a major element of the European colonialism until the end of the 18th century.

Although the

evangelization of the indigenous populations, as well as the creation of novel infrastructure to openly support these roles, it reached its largest extent after the 18th century in what was then Portuguese Africa and Portuguese Timor
. New cities and towns, with their Europe-inspired infrastructure, which included administrative, military, healthcare, educational, religious, and entrepreneurial halls, were purportedly designed to accommodate Portuguese settlers.

Queen Ana de Sousa Nzingha Mbande in peace negotiations with the Portuguese governor in Luanda
, 1657

The

southern hemisphere. Later the hospital, a majestic neo-classical building constructed in 1877 by the Portuguese, with a garden decorated with ponds and fountains, was for many years the biggest hospital south of the Sahara.[33]

Estatuto do Indigenato

The establishment of a dual,

Portuguese law and entitled to citizenship rights and duties effective in the "metropole
", and the indigenas (natives), subject to both colonial legislation and their customary, tribal laws.

Between the two groups, there was a third small group, the assimilados, comprising native blacks, mulatos, Asians, and mixed-race people, who had at least some formal education, were not subjected to paid forced labor, were entitled to some citizenship rights, and held a special identification card that differed from the one imposed on the immense mass of the African population (the indigenas), a card that the colonial authorities conceived of as a means of controlling the movements of forced labor (CEA 1998). The indigenas were subject to the traditional authorities, who were gradually integrated into the colonial administration and charged with solving disputes, managing the access to land, and guaranteeing the flows of workforce and the payment of taxes. As several authors have pointed out (Mamdani 1996; Gentili 1999; O'Laughlin 2000), the Indigenato regime was the political system that subordinated the immense majority of native Africans to local authorities entrusted with governing, in collaboration with the lowest echelon of the colonial administration, the "native" communities described as tribes and assumed to have a common ancestry, language, and culture.

After

anti-colonial ideologies spread out across Africa, many clandestine political movements were established in support of independence. Regardless it was exaggerated anti-Portuguese/anti-"Colonial" propaganda,[34] a dominant tendency in Portuguese Africa, or a mix of both, these movements claimed that since policies and development plans were primarily designed by the ruling authorities for the benefit of the territories' ethnic Portuguese population, little attention was paid to local tribal integration and the development of its native communities. According to the official guerrilla statements, this affected a majority of the indigenous population who suffered both state-sponsored discrimination and enormous social pressure. Many felt they had received too little opportunity or resources to upgrade their skills and improve their economic and social situation to a degree comparable to that of the Europeans. Statistically, Portuguese Africa's Portuguese whites were indeed wealthier and more skilled than the black indigenous majority, but the late 1950s, the 1960s and principally the early 1970s, were being testimony of a gradual change based in new socioeconomic developments and equalitarian policies for all.[citation needed
]

Colonial wars

Mozambique
were by far the two largest of those territories

The

Cuanza Norte. The U.S.-backed UPA wanted national self-determination, while for the Portuguese, who had settled in Africa and ruled considerable territory since the 15th century, their belief in a multi-racial, assimilated overseas empire justified going to war to prevent its breakup and protect its populations.[35] Portuguese leaders, including António de Oliveira Salazar, defended the policy of multiracialism, or Lusotropicalism, as a way of integrating Portuguese colonies, and their peoples, more closely with Portugal itself.[36] For the Portuguese ruling regime, the overseas empire was a matter of national interest. In Portuguese Africa, trained Portuguese black Africans were allowed to occupy positions in several occupations including specialized military, administration, teaching, health, and other posts in the civil service and private businesses, as long as they had the right technical and human qualities. In addition, intermarriage
of black women with white Portuguese men was a common practice since the earlier contacts with the Europeans. The access to basic, secondary, and technical education was being expanded and its availability was being increasingly opened to both the indigenous and European Portuguese of the territories.

Examples of this policy include several black Portuguese Africans who would become prominent individuals during the war or in the post-independence, and who had studied during the Portuguese rule of the territories in local schools or even in Portuguese schools and universities in the mainland (the

, were other examples of assimilation and multiracialism.

Since 1961, with the beginning of the colonial wars in its overseas territories, Portugal had begun to incorporate black Portuguese Africans in the war effort in Angola, Portuguese Guinea, and Portuguese Mozambique based on concepts of multi-racialism and preservation of the empire. African participation on the Portuguese side of the conflict ranged from marginal roles as laborers and informers to participation in highly trained operational combat units, including platoon commanders. As the war progressed, the use of African counterinsurgency troops increased; on the eve of the military coup of 25 April 1974, Africans accounted for more than 50 percent of Portuguese forces fighting the war. Due to the technological gap between both civilizations and the centuries-long colonial era, Portugal was a driving force in the development and shaping of all Portuguese Africa since the 15th century.

In the 1960s and early 1970s, in order to counter the increasing insurgency of the nationalistic guerrillas and show to the Portuguese people and the world that the overseas territories were totally under control, the Portuguese government accelerated its major development programs to expand and attempted to upgrade the infrastructure of the overseas territories in Africa by creating new roads, railways, bridges, dams, irrigation systems, schools and hospitals to stimulate an even higher level of

Overseas Province of Mozambique (the official designation of Portuguese Mozambique by then). This particular project became intrinsically linked with Portugal's concerns over security in the overseas colonies. The Portuguese government viewed the construction of the dam as a testimony to Portugal's "civilizing mission"[39]
and intended for the dam to reaffirm Mozambican belief in the strength and security of the Portuguese colonial government.

Colonial Brazil

Portuguese map by Lopo Homem (c. 1519) showing the coast of Brazil and natives extracting brazilwood, as well as Portuguese ships

When the

nomadic tribes, with the largest population living on the coast and along the banks of major rivers. Unlike Christopher Columbus who thought he had reached India, the Portuguese sailor Vasco da Gama had already reached India sailing around Africa two years before Pedro Álvares Cabral reached Brazil. Nevertheless, the word índios ("Indians") was by then established to designate the peoples of the New World
and remains so (it is used to this day in the Portuguese language, the people of India being called indianos).

Initially, the Europeans saw the natives as

education.

The

was another consequence of the Jesuit involvement in education. As the spaces and cultures where the Jesuits were presently varied considerably, their evangelizing methods diverged by location. However, the Society's engagement in trade, architecture, science, literature, languages, arts, music, and religious debate corresponded, in fact, to the common and foremost purpose of Christianization.

By the middle of the 16th century, the Jesuits were present in West Africa, South America, Ethiopia, India, China, and Japan. In a period of history when the world had a largely

Marquis of Pombal
attacked the power of the privileged nobility and the church and expelled the Jesuits from Portugal and its overseas possessions. Pombal seized the Jesuit schools and introduced educational reforms all over the empire.

In 1772, even before the establishment of the

Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro and is the oldest engineering school of Brazil, and one of the oldest in Latin America. A royal letter of November 20, 1800 by the King John VI of Portugal established in Rio de Janeiro the Aula Prática de Desenho e Figura, the first institution in Brazil dedicated to teaching the arts. During colonial times, the arts were mainly religious or utilitarian and were learned in a system of apprenticeship. A Decree of August 12, 1816, created an Escola Real de Ciências, Artes e Ofícios (Royal School of Sciences, Arts and Crafts), which established an official education in the fine arts and was the foundation of the current Escola Nacional de Belas Artes
.

In the 19th century, the Portuguese royal family, headed by

Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro
.

Chile

Nineteenth century elites of South American republics also used a civilizing mission rhetoric to justify armed actions against indigenous groups. On January 1, 1883, Chile refounded the old city of Villarrica, thus formally ending the process of the occupation of the indigenous lands of Araucanía.[43][44] Six months later, on June 1, president Domingo Santa María declared:[45]

The country has with satisfaction seen the problem of the reduction of the whole Araucanía solved. This event, so important to our social and political life, and so significant for the future of the republic, has ended, happily and with costly and painful sacrifices. Today the whole Araucanía is subjugated, more than to the material forces, to the moral and civilizing force of the republic ...

Modern day

LGBT rights protections as evidence of liberalism and democracy, has been described as a continuation of the civilizing mission used to justify colonialism, this time on the basis of LGBT rights in Western countries.[46][47]

See also

Sources

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  2. ^ a b Mitchell 1991.
  3. ^ Tezcan 2012, pp. 21–33.
  4. ^ Thurman 2016.
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  7. .
  8. ^ See Gilbert Rist,Le développement. Histoire d'une croyance occidentale. Chapter 2: «Les métamorphose d'un mythe occidental», Paris 1996, pp. 48-80; The History of Development, 3rd Edition 2008
  9. . Retrieved February 20, 2022.
  10. ^ Knöbl, Wolfgang (2003). "Theories That Won't Pass Away: The Never-ending Story". In Delanty, Gerard; Isin, Engin F. (eds.). Handbook of Historical Sociology. pp. 96–107 [esp p. 97].
  11. JSTOR 2228729
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  12. .
  13. ^ About the disappearance of indigenous people as the 'price' of modernization, see John H. Bodley, Victims of progress, 3rd ed., Mountain View, Calif:Mayfield Pub. Co., 1990
  14. ^ Rostow, Walter. The Stages of Economic Growth: A non-communist manifesto (1960); on Rostow, see Rist 1996, Chapter 6 pp.000–000
  15. S2CID 212940487
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  17. ^ "'The Revenge of Plassey': Football in the British Raj". LSE International History. July 20, 2020. Retrieved September 17, 2023.
  18. ^ "Batting for the British Empire: how Victorian cricket was more than just a game". HistoryExtra. Retrieved September 17, 2023.
  19. ^ Love, Adam; Dzikus, Lars (February 26, 2020). "How India came to love cricket, favored sport of its colonial British rulers". The Conversation. Retrieved September 17, 2023.
  20. .
  21. ^ Adas 2006, p. 129.
  22. ^ Anderson 1995, pp. 640–669.
  23. ^
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  24. ^ Anderson 1995, p. 648.
  25. ^ Adas 2006, p. 135.
  26. .
  27. ^ Findlay 1999, p. 111.
  28. ^ Adas 2006, p. 12.
  29. ^ Renda 2001, p. 180.
  30. ^ Renda 2001, p. 136.
  31. JSTOR 621456
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  32. ^ H. Kuper, Urbanization and Migration in West Africa - 1965 - Berkeley, Calif., U. of California
  33. ^ Patrick Lages, The island of Mozambique, UNESCO Courier, May, 1997.
  34. ^ Alice Dinerman, "Independence redux in postsocialist Mozambique" Archived 2009-06-24 at the Wayback Machine
  35. , 9780745310299
  36. ^ Colorblind Colonialism? Lusotropicalismo and Portugal’s 20th. Century Empire. in Africa. Archived 2010-05-31 at the Wayback Machine Leah Fine. Barnard College Department of History, Spring 2007
  37. ^ (in Portuguese) 52. Universidade de Luanda
  38. ^ (in Portuguese) Kaúlza de Arriaga (General), O Desenvolvimento De Moçambique e a Promoção Das Suas Populações - Situação Em 1974, Kaúlza de Arriaga's published works and texts Archived September 23, 2015, at the Wayback Machine
  39. ^ Allen Isaacman. Portuguese Colonial Intervention, Regional Conflict and Post-Colonial Amnesia: Cahora Bassa Dam, Mozambique 1965–2002, cornell.edu. Retrieved on March 10, 2007
  40. Public Broadcasting Service
    (PBS), (24 January 2006)
  41. ^ Clastres, P. (1974) Guayaki cannibalism. In Native South Americans: Ethnology of the Least Known Continent, P. Lyon, ed., pp. 309–321. Boston: Little, Brown.
  42. ISSN 1983-1439
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  43. Biblioteca Nacional de Chile
    , retrieved June 30, 2013
  44. .
  45. .
  46. .
  47. .

References

External links