Ancient Greek philosophy
This article needs to be updated. The reason given is: Too much reliance on 19th century sources.(February 2023) |
Part of a series on |
Philosophy |
---|
Ancient Greek philosophy arose in the 6th century BC. Philosophy was used to make sense of the world using reason. It dealt with a wide variety of subjects, including astronomy, epistemology, mathematics, political philosophy, ethics, metaphysics, ontology, logic, biology, rhetoric and aesthetics. Greek philosophy continued throughout the Hellenistic period and later evolved into Roman philosophy.[1]
Greek philosophy has influenced much of
Greek philosophy was influenced to some extent by the older wisdom literature and mythological cosmogonies of the ancient Near East, though the extent of this influence is widely debated. The classicist Martin Litchfield West states, "contact with oriental cosmology and theology helped to liberate the early Greek philosophers' imagination; it certainly gave them many suggestive ideas. But they taught themselves to reason. Philosophy as we understand it is a Greek creation".[4]
Subsequent philosophic tradition was so influenced by Socrates as presented by Plato that it is conventional to refer to philosophy developed prior to Socrates as pre-Socratic philosophy. The periods following this, up to and after the wars of Alexander the Great, are those of "Classical Greek" and "Hellenistic philosophy", respectively.
Early Greek Philosophy (or pre-Socratic philosophy)
The convention of terming those
Since 2016, however, current scholarship has transitioned from calling philosophy before the Athenian school "pre-Socratic" to simply "Early Greek Philosophy". André Laks and Glenn W. Most have been partly responsible for popularizing this shift in describing the era preceding the Athenian School through their comprehensive, nine volume Loeb editions of Early Greek Philosophy. In their first volume, they distinguish their systematic approach from that of Hermann Diels, beginning with the choice of "Early Greek Philosophy" over "pre-Socratic philosophy" most notably because Socrates is contemporary and sometimes even prior to philosophers traditionally considered "pre-Socratic" (e.g., the Atomists).[7]
The early Greek philosophers (or "pre-Socratics") were primarily concerned with cosmology, ontology, and mathematics. They were distinguished from "non-philosophers" insofar as they rejected mythological explanations in favor of reasoned discourse.[8]
Milesian school
Thales inspired the
Xenophanes
Xenophanes was born in Ionia, where the Milesian school was at its most powerful and may have picked up some of the Milesians' cosmological theories as a result.[17] What is known is that he argued that each of the phenomena had a natural rather than divine explanation in a manner reminiscent of Anaximander's theories and that there was only one god, the world as a whole, and that he ridiculed the anthropomorphism of the Greek religion by claiming that cattle would claim that the gods looked like cattle, horses like horses, and lions like lions, just as the Ethiopians claimed that the gods were snub-nosed and black and the Thracians claimed they were pale and red-haired.[18]
Xenophanes was highly influential to subsequent schools of philosophy. He was seen as the founder of a line of philosophy that culminated in Pyrrhonism,[19] possibly an influence on Eleatic philosophy, and a precursor to Epicurus' total break between science and religion.[20]
Pythagoreanism
Pythagoras lived at approximately the same time that Xenophanes did and, in contrast to the latter, the school that he founded sought to reconcile religious belief and reason. Little is known about his life with any reliability, however, and no writings of his survive, so it is possible that he was simply a mystic whose successors introduced rationalism into Pythagoreanism, that he was simply a rationalist whose successors are responsible for the mysticism in Pythagoreanism, or that he was actually the author of the doctrine; there is no way to know for certain.[21]
Pythagoras is said to have been a disciple of Anaximander and to have imbibed the cosmological concerns of the Ionians, including the idea that the cosmos is constructed of spheres, the importance of the infinite, and that air or aether is the arche of everything.[22] Pythagoreanism also incorporated ascetic ideals, emphasizing purgation, metempsychosis, and consequently a respect for all animal life; much was made of the correspondence between mathematics and the cosmos in a musical harmony.[23] Pythagoras believed that behind the appearance of things, there was the permanent principle of mathematics, and that the forms were based on a transcendental mathematical relation.[24]
Heraclitus
Heraclitus must have lived after Xenophanes and Pythagoras, as he condemns them along with
Heraclitus called the oppositional processes ἔρις (
Eleatic philosophy
In support of this, Parmenides' pupil
Pluralism and atomism
The power of Parmenides' logic was such that some subsequent philosophers abandoned the monism of the Milesians, Xenophanes, Heraclitus, and Parmenides, where one thing was the arche. In place of this, they adopted pluralism, such as Empedocles and Anaxagoras.[36] There were, they said, multiple elements which were not reducible to one another and these were set in motion by love and strife (as in Empedocles) or by Mind (as in Anaxagoras). Agreeing with Parmenides that there is no coming into being or passing away, genesis or decay, they said that things appear to come into being and pass away because the elements out of which they are composed assemble or disassemble while themselves being unchanging.[37]
Leucippus also proposed an ontological pluralism with a cosmogony based on two main elements: the vacuum and atoms. These, by means of their inherent movement, are crossing the void and creating the real material bodies. His theories were not well known by the time of Plato, however, and they were ultimately incorporated into the work of his student, Democritus.[38]
Sophism
Sophism arose from the juxtaposition of physis (nature) and nomos (law). John Burnet posits its origin in the scientific progress of the previous centuries which suggested that Being was radically different from what was experienced by the senses and, if comprehensible at all, was not comprehensible in terms of order; the world in which people lived, on the other hand, was one of law and order, albeit of humankind's own making.[39] At the same time, nature was constant, while what was by law differed from one place to another and could be changed.
The first person to call themselves a sophist, according to Plato, was Protagoras, whom he presents as teaching that all virtue is conventional. It was Protagoras who claimed that "man is the measure of all things, of the things that are, that they are, and of the things that are not, that they are not," which Plato interprets as a radical perspectivism, where some things seem to be one way for one person (and so actually are that way) and another way for another person (and so actually are that way as well); the conclusion being that one cannot look to nature for guidance regarding how to live one's life.[40]
Protagoras and subsequent sophists tended to teach
Classical Greek philosophy
Socrates
Socrates, believed to have been born in Athens in the 5th century BC, marks a watershed in ancient Greek philosophy. Athens was a center of learning, with sophists and philosophers traveling from across Greece to teach rhetoric, astronomy, cosmology, and geometry.
While philosophy was an established pursuit prior to Socrates, Cicero credits him as "the first who brought philosophy down from the heavens, placed it in cities, introduced it into families, and obliged it to examine into life and morals, and good and evil."[41] By this account he would be considered the founder of political philosophy.[42] The reasons for this turn toward political and ethical subjects remain the object of much study.[43][44]
The fact that many conversations involving Socrates (as recounted by Plato and Xenophon) end without having reached a firm conclusion, or aporetically,[45] has stimulated debate over the meaning of the Socratic method.[46] Socrates is said to have pursued this probing question-and-answer style of examination on a number of topics, usually attempting to arrive at a defensible and attractive definition of a virtue.
While Socrates' recorded conversations rarely provide a definite answer to the question under examination, several maxims or paradoxes for which he has become known recur. Socrates taught that no one desires what is bad, and so if anyone does something that truly is bad, it must be unwillingly or out of ignorance; consequently, all virtue is knowledge.[47][48] He frequently remarks on his own ignorance (claiming that he does not know what courage is, for example). Plato presents him as distinguishing himself from the common run of mankind by the fact that, while they know nothing noble and good, they do not know that they do not know, whereas Socrates knows and acknowledges that he knows nothing noble and good.[49]
The great statesman Pericles was closely associated with this new learning and a friend of Anaxagoras, however, and his political opponents struck at him by taking advantage of a conservative reaction against the philosophers; it became a crime to investigate the things above the heavens or below the earth, subjects considered impious. Anaxagoras is said to have been charged and to have fled into exile when Socrates was about twenty years of age.[50] There is a story that Protagoras, too, was forced to flee and that the Athenians burned his books.[51] Socrates, however, is the only subject recorded as charged under this law, convicted, and sentenced to death in 399 BC (see Trial of Socrates). In the version of his defense speech presented by Plato, he claims that it is the envy he arouses on account of his being a philosopher that will convict him.
Numerous subsequent philosophical movements were inspired by Socrates or his younger associates. Plato casts Socrates as the main interlocutor in his
Plato
Plato was an Athenian of the generation after Socrates. Ancient tradition ascribes thirty-six dialogues and thirteen letters to him, although of these only twenty-four of the dialogues are now universally recognized as authentic; most modern scholars believe that at least twenty-eight dialogues and two of the letters were in fact written by Plato, although all of the thirty-six dialogues have some defenders.[52] A further nine dialogues are ascribed to Plato but were considered spurious even in antiquity.[53]
Plato's dialogues feature Socrates, although not always as the leader of the conversation. (One dialogue, the
The political doctrine ascribed to Plato is derived from the
Whereas the Republic is premised on a distinction between the sort of knowledge possessed by the philosopher and that possessed by the king or political man, Socrates explores only the character of the philosopher; in the Statesman, on the other hand, a participant referred to as the Eleatic Stranger discusses the sort of knowledge possessed by the political man, while Socrates listens quietly.[55] Although rule by a wise man would be preferable to rule by law, the wise cannot help but be judged by the unwise, and so in practice, rule by law is deemed necessary.
Both the Republic and the Statesman reveal the limitations of politics, raising the question of what political order would be best given those constraints; that question is addressed in the Laws, a dialogue that does not take place in Athens and from which Socrates is absent.[55] The character of the society described there is eminently conservative, a corrected or liberalized timocracy on the Spartan or Cretan model or that of pre-democratic Athens.[55]
Plato's dialogues also have metaphysical themes, the most famous of which is his theory of forms. It holds that non-material abstract (but substantial) forms (or ideas), and not the material world of change known to us through our physical senses, possess the highest and most fundamental kind of reality. He argued extensively in the Phaedo, Phaedrus, and Republic for the immortality of the soul, and he believed specifically in reincarnation.[56]
Plato often uses long-form
Aristotle
Aristotle moved to Athens from his native
Aristotle is often portrayed as disagreeing with his teacher Plato (e.g., in
Aristotle's fame was not great during the
Aristotle opposed the utopian style of theorizing, deciding to rely on the understood and observed behaviors of people in reality to formulate his theories. Stemming from an underlying moral assumption that life is valuable, the philosopher makes a point that scarce resources ought to be responsibly allocated to reduce poverty and death. This 'fear of goods' led Aristotle to exclusively support 'natural' trades in which personal satiation was kept at natural limit of consumption.[65] 'Unnatural' trade, as opposed to the intended limit, was classified as the acquisition of wealth to attain more wealth instead of to purchase more goods.[65][66] Cutting more along the grain of reality, Aristotle did not only set his mind on how to give people direction to make the right choices but wanted each person equipped with the tools to perform this moral duty. In his own words, "Property should be in a certain sense common, but, as a general rule, private; for, when everyone has a distinct interest, men will not complain of one another, and they will make more progress because everyone will be attending to his own business... And further, there is the greatest pleasure in doing a kindness or service to friends or guests or companions, which can only be rendered when a man has private property. These advantages are lost by excessive unification of the state."[62]
Cynicism
Cynicism was founded by Antisthenes, who was a disciple of Socrates, as well as Diogenes, his contemporary.[67] Their aim was to live according to nature and against convention.[67] Antisthenes was inspired by the ascetism of Socrates, and accused Plato of pride and conceit.[68] Diogenes, his follower, took the ideas to their limit, living in extreme poverty and engaging in anti-social behaviour. Crates of Thebes was, in turn, inspired by Diogenes to give away his fortune and live on the streets of Athens.[69]
Cyrenaicism
The
Megarians
The
Hellenistic philosophy
During the
Pyrrhonism
Epicureanism
Stoicism
The founder of Stoicism, Zeno of Citium, was taught by Crates of Thebes, and he took up the Cynic ideals of continence and self-mastery, but applied the concept of apatheia (indifference) to personal circumstances rather than social norms, and switched shameless flouting of the latter for a resolute fulfillment of social duties.[76] Logic and physics were also part of early Stoicism, further developed by Zeno's successors Cleanthes and Chrysippus.[77] Their metaphysics was based in materialism, which was structured by logos, reason (but also called God or fate).[78] Their logical contributions still feature in contemporary propositional calculus.[79] Their ethics was based on pursuing happiness, which they believed was a product of 'living in accordance with nature'.[80] This meant accepting those things which one could not change.[80] One could therefore choose whether to be happy or not by adjusting one's attitude towards their circumstances, as the freedom from fears and desires was happiness itself.[81]
Platonism
Academic skepticism
Around 266 BC,
Middle Platonism
Following the end of the skeptical period of the Academy with Antiochus of Ascalon, Platonic thought entered the period of Middle Platonism, which absorbed ideas from the Peripatetic and Stoic schools. More extreme syncretism was done by Numenius of Apamea, who combined it with Neopythagoreanism.[87]
Neoplatonism
Also affected by the neopythagoreans, the neoplatonists, first of them Plotinus, argued that mind exists before matter, and that the universe has a singular cause which must therefore be a single mind.[88] As such, neoplatonism became essentially a religion, and had great impact on Gnosticism and Christian theology.[88]
Transmission of Greek philosophy in the medieval period
During the
See also
- Ancient philosophy
- Byzantine philosophy
- Definitions of philosophy
- English words of Greek origin
- International scientific vocabulary
- List of ancient Greek philosophers
- Translingualism
- Transliteration of Greek into English
Notes
- ^ "Ancient Greek philosophy, Herodotus, famous ancient Greek philosophers. Ancient Greek philosophy at Hellenism.Net". www.hellenism.net. Retrieved 2019-01-28.
- ^ Alfred North Whitehead (1929), Process and Reality, Part II, Chap. I, Sect. I.
- ^ Kevin Scharp (Department of Philosophy, Ohio State University) – Diagrams Archived 2014-10-31 at the Wayback Machine.
- ISBN 978-0-19-280137-1.
- ^ Greg Whitlock, preface to The Pre-Platonic Philosophers, by Friedrich Nietzsche (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 2001), xiv–xvi.
- ^ Greg Whitlock, preface to The Pre-Platonic Philosophers, by Friedrich Nietzsche (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 2001), xiii–xix.
- ^ Early Greek Philosophy, Volume 1: Introductory and Reference Material, Edited and Translated by André Laks and Glenn W. Most, Loeb Classical Library 524 (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2016) 6–8.
- ^ John Burnet, Greek Philosophy: Thales to Plato, 3rd ed. (London: A & C Black Ltd., 1920), 3–16. Scanned version from Internet Archive
- ^ Aristotle, Metaphysics Alpha, 983b18.
- ^ Aristotle, Metaphysics Alpha, 983 b6 8–11.
- ^ Burnet, Greek Philosophy, 3–4, 18.
- ^ Burnet, Greek Philosophy, 18–20; Herodotus, Histories, I.74.
- ^ Burnet, Greek Philosophy, 22–24.
- ISBN 9780521294201– via Google Books.
- ^ Burnet, Greek Philosophy, 21.
- ^ Burnet, Greek Philosophy, 27.
- ^ Burnet, Greek Philosophy, 35.
- ^ Burnet, Greek Philosophy, 35; Diels-Kranz, Die Fragmente der Vorsokratiker, Xenophanes frs. 15–16.
- Praeparatio EvangelicaChapter XVII
- ^ Burnet, Greek Philosophy, 33, 36.
- ^ Burnet, Greek Philosophy, 37–38.
- ^ Burnet, Greek Philosophy, 38–39.
- ^ Burnet, Greek Philosophy, 40–49.
- ^ C.M. Bowra 1957 The Greek experience p. 166"
- ^ Burnet, Greek Philosophy, 57.
- ^ DK B1.
- W.K.C. Guthrie, A History of Greek Philosophy, vol. 1, Cambridge University Press, 1962.
- ^ DK B2.
- ^ Burnet, Greek Philosophy, 57–63.
- ^ DK B80
- ^ Burnet, Greek Philosophy, 64.
- ^ Burnet, Greek Philosophy, 66–67.
- ^ Burnet, Greek Philosophy, 68.
- ^ Burnet, Greek Philosophy, 67.
- ^ Burnet, Greek Philosophy, 82.
- ^ Burnet, Greek Philosophy, 69.
- ^ Burnet, Greek Philosophy, 70.
- ^ Burnet, Greek Philosophy, 94.
- ^ Burnet, Greek Philosophy, 105–10.
- ^ Burnet, Greek Philosophy, 113–17.
- Tusculan Disputations, V 10–11 (or V IV).
- ^ Leo Strauss, Natural Right and History (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1953), 120.
- ^ Seth Benardete, The Argument of the Action (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2000), 277–96.
- ^ Laurence Lampert, How Philosophy Became Socratic (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2010).
- Republic 336c & 337a, Theaetetus 150c, Apology of Socrates 23a; Xenophon, Memorabilia 4.4.9; Aristotle, Sophistical Refutations183b7.
- W.K.C. Guthrie, The Greek Philosophers (London: Methuen, 1950), 73–75.
- ^ Terence Irwin, The Development of Ethics, vol. 1 (Oxford: Oxford University Press 2007), 14
- ^ Gerasimos Santas, "The Socratic Paradoxes", Philosophical Review 73 (1964): 147–64, 147.
- ^ Apology of Socrates 21d.
- ^ Debra Nails, The People of Plato (Indianapolis: Hackett, 2002), 24.
- ^ Nails, People of Plato, 256.
- ^ John M. Cooper, ed., Complete Works, by Plato (Indianapolis: Hackett, 1997), v–vi, viii–xii, 1634–35.
- ^ Cooper, ed., Complete Works, by Plato, v–vi, viii–xii.
- ^ Leo Strauss, The City and Man (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1964), 50–51.
- ^ a b c d Leo Strauss, "Plato", in History of Political Philosophy, ed. Leo Strauss and Joseph Cropsey, 3rd ed. (Chicago: University of Chicago Press 1987): 33–89.
- Kamtekar, Rachana. “The Soul’s (After-) Life,” Ancient Philosophy 36 (2016): 1–18.
- ^ "Plato – Allegory of the cave" (PDF). classicalastrologer.files.wordpress.com.
- ^ "Allegory of the Cave". washington.edu.
- ^ Kemerling, Garth. "Plato: The Republic 5–10". philosophypages.com.
- ^ Carnes Lord, Introduction to The Politics, by Aristotle (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1984): 1–29.
- ^ Bertrand Russell, A History of Western Philosophy (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1972).
- ^ a b Aristotle, Politics, bk. 2, ch. 1–6.
- ^ Aristotle, Metaphysics, 991a20–22.
- ^ Robin Smith, "Aristotle's Logic," Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (2007).
- ^ OCLC 979259190.
- JSTOR 2224006.
- ^ a b Grayling 2019, p. 99.
- ^ Grayling 2019, p. 100.
- ^ Grayling 2019, p. 102.
- ISBN 0-19-509652-5.
- ISBN 0-88706-290-3.
- ISBN 9781400866328.
- ^ Grayling 2019, p. 103.
- ^ Grayling 2019, p. 104.
- ^ a b Grayling 2019, p. 106.
- ^ Grayling 2019, pp. 107–108.
- ^ Grayling 2019, p. 108.
- ^ Grayling 2019, pp. 108–109.
- ^ Grayling 2019, p. 110.
- ^ a b Grayling 2019, p. 112.
- ^ Grayling 2019, p. 114.
- ^ Sextus Empiricus, "Outlines of Pyrrhonism" I.33.232
- ^ Sextus Empiricus, "Outlines of Pyrrhonism" I.33.225–231
- ^ a b c This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Smith, William, ed. (1870). "Arcesilaus". Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology.
- ^ "Plato, Phaedo, page 64". www.perseus.tufts.edu.
- ^ Veres, Máté (2009). "Carlos Lévy, Les Scepticismes; Markus Gabriel, Antike und moderne Skepsis zur Einführung". Rhizai. A Journal for Ancient Philosophy and Science. 6 (1): 107.: 111
- ^ Eduard Zeller, Outlines of the History of Greek Philosophy, 13th Edition, page 309
- ^ a b Grayling 2019, p. 124.
- ^ Lindberg, David. (1992) The Beginnings of Western Science. University of Chicago Press. p. 162.
References
- Baird, Forrest E.; Kaufmann, Walter (2008). From Plato to Derrida. Upper Saddle River, New Jersey: Pearson Prentice Hall. ISBN 978-0-13-158591-1.
- Kamtekar, Rachana. "The Soul's (After-) Life", Ancient Philosophy 36 (2016): 1–18.
- Campbell, Douglas R. "Plato's Theory of Reincarnation: Eschatology and Natural Philosophy", Review of Metaphysics 75 (4): 643–665. 2022.
- Nikolaos Bakalis (2005). Handbook of Greek Philosophy: From Thales to the Stoics Analysis and Fragments, Trafford Publishing ISBN 1-4120-4843-5
- John Burnet, Early Greek Philosophy (archived from the original, 6 February 2015), 1930.
- Freeman, Charles (1996). Egypt, Greece and Rome. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-815003-9.
- Grayling, A. C. (2019-11-05). The History of Philosophy. Penguin. ISBN 978-1-9848-7875-5.
- William Keith Chambers Guthrie, A History of Greek Philosophy: Volume 1, The Earlier Presocratics and the Pythagoreans, 1962.
- Søren Kierkegaard, On the Concept of Irony with Continual Reference to Socrates, 1841.
- A.A. Long. Hellenistic Philosophy. University of California, 1992. (2nd Ed.)
- Martin Litchfield West, Early Greek Philosophy and the Orient, Oxford, Clarendon Press, 1971.
- Martin Litchfield West, The East Face of Helicon: West Asiatic Elements in Greek Poetry and Myth, Oxford [England]; New York: Clarendon Press, 1997.
Further reading
- Clark, Stephen. 2012. Ancient Mediterranean Philosophy: An Introduction. New York: Bloomsbury.
- Curd, Patricia, and D.W. Graham, eds. 2008. The Oxford Handbook of Presocratic Philosophy. New York: Oxford Univ. Press.
- Gaca, Kathy L. 2003. The Making of Fornication: Eros, Ethics, and Political Reform in Greek Philosophy and Early Christianity. Berkeley: University of California Press.
- Garani, Myrto and David Konstan eds. 2014. The Philosophizing Muse: The Influence of Greek Philosophy on Roman Poetry. Pierides, 3. Newcastle upon Tyne: Cambridge Scholars Publishing.
- Kamtekar, Rachana. “The Soul’s (After-) Life,” Ancient Philosophy 36 (2016): 1–18.
- Campbell, Douglas R. "Plato's Theory of Reincarnation: Eschatology and Natural Philosophy," Review of Metaphysics 75 (4): 643–665. 2022.
- Gill, Mary Louise, and Pierre Pellegrin. 2009. A Companion to Ancient Greek Philosophy. Oxford: Blackwell.
- Hankinson, R.J. 1999. Cause and Explanation in Ancient Greek Thought. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
- The Hemlock Cup: Socrates, Athens and the Search for the Good Life. London: Jonathan Cape.
- Kahn, C.H. 1994. Anaximander and the Origins of Greek Cosmology. Indianapolis, IN: Hackett
- Luchte, James. 2011. Early Greek Thought: Before the Dawn. New York: Continuum.
- Martín-Velasco, María José and María José García Blanco eds. 2016. Greek Philosophy and Mystery Cults. Newcastle upon Tyne: Cambridge Scholars Publishing.
- Nightingale, Andrea W. 2004. Spectacles of Truth in Classical Greek Philosophy: Theoria in its Cultural Context. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Univ. Press.
- O’Grady, Patricia. 2002. Thales of Miletus. Aldershot, UK: Ashgate.
- Preus, Anthony. 2010. The A to Z of Ancient Greek Philosophy. Lanham, MD: Scarecrow.
- Reid, Heather L. 2011. Athletics and Philosophy in the Ancient World: Contests of Virtue. Ethics and Sport. London; New York: Routledge.
- Wolfsdorf, David. 2013. Pleasure in Ancient Greek Philosophy. Key Themes in Ancient Philosophy. Cambridge; New York: Cambridge University Press.
External links
- Media related to Ancient Greek philosophy at Wikimedia Commons
- Ancient Greek Philosophy, entry in the Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy
- Ancient Greek Philosophers, Worldhistorycharts.com
- The Impact of Greek Culture on Normative Judaism from the Hellenistic Period through the Middle Ages c. 330 BCE – 1250 CE
- Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
- Ancient Greek Philosophy and important Greek philosophers, Hellenism.Net