Languages of India

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This article is about the general overview of Indian languages. For historical context, see Linguistic history of India.
Not to be confused with Languages of the Indian subcontinent.

Languages of India
Official

(total of official languages: 23, including 22 8th Schedule languages and additional official language, English)

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Languages spoken in the Republic of India belong to several language families, the major ones being the Indo-Aryan languages spoken by 78.05% of Indians and the Dravidian languages spoken by 19.64% of Indians;[5][6] both families together are sometimes known as Indic languages.[7][8][9][a] Languages spoken by the remaining 2.31% of the population belong to the Austroasiatic, Sino–Tibetan, Tai–Kadai, and a few other minor language families and isolates.[10]: 283  According to the People's Linguistic Survey of India, India has the second highest number of languages (780), after Papua New Guinea (840).[11] Ethnologue lists a lower number of 456.[12]

Article 343 of the

Indian numerals",[13][14] which are referred to as Arabic numerals in most English-speaking countries.[1] Despite some misconceptions, Hindi is not the national language of India; the Constitution of India does not give any language the status of national language.[15][16]

The

classical language to Kannada, Malayalam, Odia, Sanskrit, Tamil and Telugu. This status
is given to languages that have a rich heritage and independent nature.

According to the

administrative language for several centuries until the era of British colonisation.[21]
English continues to be an important language in India. It is used in higher education and in some areas of the Indian government.

Hindi, which has the largest number of first-language speakers in India today,[22] serves as the lingua franca across much of northern and central India. However, there have been concerns raised with Hindi being imposed in South India, most notably in the states of Tamil Nadu and Karnataka.[23][24] Some in Maharashtra, West Bengal, Assam, Punjab and other non-Hindi regions have also started to voice concerns about imposition of Hindi.[25] Bengali is the second most spoken and understood language in the country with a significant number of speakers in eastern and northeastern regions. Marathi is the third most spoken and understood language in the country with a significant number of speakers in the southwest,[26] followed closely by Telugu, which is most commonly spoken in southeastern areas.[27]

Manipuri) as well as Gujarati, in the third place, and Bengali in the fourth place, according to the 2011 census of India.[28]

According to the

Kra-Dai languages.[29]

History

Main article: Linguistic history of India
Further information: Persian language in the Indian subcontinent

The

Southern Indian languages are from the Dravidian family. The Dravidian languages are indigenous to the Indian subcontinent.[30] Proto-Dravidian languages were spoken in India in the 4th millennium BCE and started disintegrating into various branches around 3rd millennium BCE.[31] The Dravidian languages are classified in four groups: North, Central (Kolami–Parji), South-Central (Telugu–Kui), and South Dravidian (Tamil-Kannada).[32]

The

Middle Indo-Aryan Prakrit languages and Apabhraṃśa of the Middle Ages. The Indo-Aryan languages developed and emerged in three stages — Old Indo-Aryan (1500 BCE to 600 BCE), Middle Indo-Aryan stage (600 BCE and 1000 CE), and New Indo-Aryan (between 1000 CE and 1300 CE). The modern north Indian Indo-Aryan languages all evolved into distinct, recognisable languages in the New Indo-Aryan Age.[33]

In the

Manipur Kingdom (Meitei: Meeteileipak). It was honoured before and during the darbar sessions before Manipur was merged into the Dominion of the Indian Republic. Its history of existence spans from 1500 to 2000 years according to most eminent scholars including Padma Vibhushan awardee Suniti Kumar Chatterji.[34][35] Even according to the "Manipur State Constitution Act, 1947" of the once independent Manipur, Manipuri and English were made the court languages of the kingdom (before merging into Indian Republic).[36][37]

Turco-Mongol origin), influenced the art, history, and literature of the region for more than 500 years, resulting in the Persianisation of many Indian tongues, mainly lexically. In 1837, the British replaced Persian with English and Hindustani in Perso-Arabic script for administrative purposes and the Hindi movement of the 19th Century replaced Persianised vocabulary with Sanskrit derivations and replaced or supplemented the use of Perso-Arabic script for administrative purposes with Devanagari.[19][38]

Each of the northern Indian languages had different influences. For example,

Modern Standard Urdu as registers
of the Hindustani language. Bangla on the other hand has retained its Sanskritic roots while heavily expanding its vocabulary with words from Persian, English, French and other foreign languages.[39][40]

Inventories

Main article: List of languages by number of native speakers in India

The first official survey of language diversity in the Indian subcontinent was carried out by

Sir George Abraham Grierson from 1898 to 1928. Titled the Linguistic Survey of India, it reported a total of 179 languages and 544 dialects.[41] However, the results were skewed due to ambiguities in distinguishing between "dialect" and "language",[41] use of untrained personnel and under-reporting of data from South India, as the former provinces of Burma and Madras, as well as the princely states of Cochin, Hyderabad, Mysore and Travancore were not included in the survey.[42]

Languages of India by language families (Ethnologue)[43]

  Sino-Tibetan (34.90%)
  Indo-European (33.01%)
  Dravidian (19.81%)
  Austroasiatic (7.54%)
  Andamanese (3.30%)
  Kra–Dai (1.17%)
  Isolates (0.23%)

Different sources give widely differing figures, primarily based on how the terms "language" and "dialect" are defined and grouped. Ethnologue, produced by the Christian evangelist organisation SIL International, lists 435 tongues for India (out of 6,912 worldwide), 424 of which are living, while 11 are extinct. The 424 living languages are further subclassified in Ethnologue as follows:[43][44]

  • Institutional– 45
  • Stable– 248
  • Endangered– 131
  • Extinct– 11

The People's Linguistic Survey of India, a privately owned research institution in India, has recorded over 66 different scripts and more than 780 languages in India during its nationwide survey, which the organisation claims to be the biggest linguistic survey in India.[45]

The

People of India (POI) project of Anthropological Survey of India reported 325 languages which are used for in-group communication by 5,633 Indian communities.[46]

Census of India figures

The Census of India records and publishes data with respect to the number of speakers for languages and dialects, but uses its own unique terminology, distinguishing between language and mother tongue. The mother tongues are grouped within each language. Many of the mother tongues so defined could be considered a language rather than a dialect by linguistic standards. This is especially so for many mother tongues with tens of millions of speakers that are officially grouped under the language Hindi.

1951 Census

Separate figures for Hindi, Urdu, and Punjabi were not issued, due to the fact the returns were intentionally recorded incorrectly in states such as

Bilaspur.[47]

1961 Census

The 1961 census recognised 1,652 mother tongues spoken by 438,936,918 people, counting all declarations made by any individual at the time when the census was conducted.[48] However, the declaring individuals often mixed names of languages with those of dialects, subdialects and dialect clusters or even castes, professions, religions, localities, regions, countries and nationalities.[48] The list therefore includes languages with barely a few individual speakers as well as 530 unclassified mother tongues and more than 100 idioms that are non-native to India, including linguistically unspecific demonyms such as "African", "Canadian" or "Belgian".[48]

1991 Census

The 1991 census recognises 1,576 classified mother tongues.[49] According to the 1991 census, 22 languages had more than a million native speakers, 50 had more than 100,000 and 114 had more than 10,000 native speakers. The remaining accounted for a total of 566,000 native speakers (out of a total of 838 million Indians in 1991).[49][50]

2001 Census

According to the census of 2001, there are 1635 rationalised mother tongues, 234 identifiable mother tongues and 22 major languages.

Coorg (Kodagu).[52]

2011 Census

According to the most recent census of 2011, after thorough linguistic scrutiny, edit, and rationalization on 19,569 raw linguistic affiliations, the census recognizes 1369 rationalized mother tongues and 1474 names which were treated as ‘unclassified’ and relegated to ‘other’ mother tongue category.[53] Among, the 1369 rationalized mother tongues which are spoken by 10,000 or more speakers, are further grouped into appropriate set that resulted into total 121 languages. In these 121 languages, 22 are already part of the Eighth Schedule to the Constitution of India and the other 99 are termed as "Total of other languages" which is one short as of the other languages recognized in 2001 census.[54]

Multilingualism

Main article: Multilingualism in India

2011 Census India

First, second, and third languages by number of speakers in India (2011 Census)
Language First language
speakers 		Second
language 		Third
language 		Total speakers
Numbers[55] As % of total
population 		Speakers (millions) (millions)[56] As % of total
population[57]
Hindi 528,347,193 43.63 139 24 692 57.1
Bengali 97,237,669 8.30 9 1 107 8.9
Marathi 83,026,680 6.86 13 3 99 8.2
Telugu 81,127,740 6.70 12 1 95 7.8
Tamil 69,026,881 5.70 7 1 77 6.3
Gujarati 55,492,554 4.58 4 1 60 5.0
Urdu 50,772,631 4.19 11 1 63 5.2
Kannada 43,706,512 3.61 14 1 59 4.9
Odia 37,521,324 3.10 5 0.03 43 3.5
Malayalam 34,838,819 2.88 0.05 0.02 36 2.9
Punjabi 33,124,726 2.74 0.03 0.003 36 3.0
Assamese 15,311,351 1.26 7.48 0.74 24 2.0
Maithili 13,583,464 1.12 0.03 0.003 14 1.2
Manipuri
) 		1,761,079 0.15 0.4 0.04 2.25 0.2
English 259,678 0.02 83 46 129 10.6
Sanskrit 24,821 0.00185 0.01 0.003 0.025 0.002

Language families

Ethnolinguistically, the languages of South Asia, echoing the complex history and geography of the region, form a complex patchwork of

language families, the major ones being the Indo-Aryan languages spoken by 78.05% of Indians and the Dravidian languages spoken by 19.64% of Indians. The most important language families in terms of speakers are:[58][5][6][10][59]

Language family Population (2018)
Indo-European language family 1,045,000,000 (78.05%)
Dravidian language family 265,000,000 (19.64%)
Austroasiatic language family Unknown
Sino-Tibetan language family Unknown
Tai–Kadai language family
 Unknown
Great Andamanese languages Unknown
Languages of India 1,340,000,000

Indo-Aryan language family

Main article: Indo-Aryan languages
Indo-Aryan language subgroups (Urdu is included under Hindi)
  Dardic (Pashai, Khowar, Shina, Kohistani, Kashmiri)
  North-western (Punjabi, Sindhi)
  Western (Marwari, Malvi, Harauti, Gujarati, Khandeshi, Bhili)
  Northern (Pahari, Nepali)
  Central (Hindi, Awadhi, Braj, Haryanvi, Chhattisgarhi, Bundeli, Bagheli)
  Eastern (Bhojpuri, Magahi, Maithili, Bengali, Assamese, Odia)
  Southern (Marathi, Konkani, Sinhala, Maldivan)

The largest of the language families represented in India, in terms of speakers, is the Indo-Aryan language family, a branch of the Indo-Iranian family, itself the easternmost, extant subfamily of the Indo-European language family. This language family predominates, accounting for some 1035 million speakers, or over 76.5 of the population, per a 2018 estimate. The most widely spoken languages of this group are Hindi,[n 1] Bengali, Marathi, Gujarati, Bhojpuri, Awadhi, Odia, Maithili, Punjabi, Marwari, Kashmiri, Assamese (Asamiya), Chhattisgarhi and Sindhi.[60][61] Aside from the Indo-Aryan languages, other Indo-European languages are also spoken in India, the most prominent of which is English, as a lingua franca.

Dravidian language family

Main article: Dravidian languages

The second largest language family is the

Dhangar, a dialect of Kurukh, in Nepal.[63]

Austroasiatic language family

Families with smaller numbers of speakers are

Austroasiatic and numerous small Sino-Tibetan languages, with some 10 and 6 million speakers, respectively, together 3% of the population.[64]

The Austroasiatic language family (austro meaning South) is the

autochthonous language in Southeast Asia, arrived by migration. Austroasiatic languages of mainland India are the Khasi and Munda languages, including Bhumij and Santali. The languages of the Nicobar islands also form part of this language family. With the exceptions of Khasi and Santali, all Austroasiatic languages on Indian territory are endangered.[10]
: 456–457 

Tibeto-Burman language family

The Tibeto-Burman language family is well represented in India. However, their interrelationships are not discernible, and the family has been described as "a patch of leaves on the forest floor" rather than with the conventional metaphor of a "family tree".[10]: 283–5 

Manipuri language".[65][66][67]

In India, Tibeto-Burman languages are spoken across the Himalayas in the regions of Arunachal Pradesh, Assam (hills and autonomous councils), Himachal Pradesh, Ladakh, Manipur, Meghalaya, Mizoram, Nagaland, Sikkim, Tripura and West Bengal.[68][69][70]

Sino-Tibetan languages spoken in India include two constitutionally recognised official languages,

Kukish
sub linguistic branches, amongst many others.

Tai-Kadai language family

The

Zhuang language in Guangxi, China
.

Andamanese language families

The languages of the Andaman Islands form another group:[71]

In addition, Sentinelese is thought likely to be related to the above languages.[71]

Language isolates

The only language found in the Indian mainland that is considered a

Nihali.[10]: 337  The status of Nihali is ambiguous, having been considered as a distinct Austroasiatic language, as a dialect of Korku and also as being a "thieves' argot" rather than a legitimate language.[72][73]

The other language isolates found in the rest of South Asia include

Gilgit–Baltistan (administered by Pakistan), Kusunda (in western Nepal), and Vedda (in Sri Lanka).[10]: 283  The validity of the Great Andamanese language group as a language family has been questioned and it has been considered a language isolate by some authorities.[10]: 283 [74][75]

In addition, a

Bantu language, Sidi, was spoken until the mid-20th century in Gujarat by the Siddi.[10]
: 528 

Official languages

Main article:
Languages with official status in India
States and union territories of India by the most commonly spoken (L1) first language[76]
Official languages of India by state and union territory. Hindustani refers to both Hindi and Urdu in this map.

Federal level

Language proficiency in India (2001, 2011)[77][78]
Language Year percent
Hindi 2001
  
 53.61% +3.50%
2011
  
 57.11%
English 2001
  
 12.19% -1.57%
2011
  
 10.62%

Prior to Independence, in

British India, English was the sole language used for administrative purposes as well as for higher education purposes.[79]

In 1946, the issue of national language was a bitterly contested subject in the proceedings of the Constituent Assembly of India, specifically what should be the language in which the Constitution of India is written and the language spoken during the proceedings of Parliament and thus deserving of the epithet "national". The Constitution of India does not give any language the status of national language.[15][16]

Members belonging to the northern parts of India insisted that the Constitution be drafted in Hindi with the unofficial translation in English. This was not agreed to by the drafting committee on the grounds that English was much better to craft the nuanced prose on constitutional subjects. The efforts to make Hindi the pre-eminent language were bitterly resisted by the members from those parts of India where Hindi was not spoken natively.

Eventually, a compromise was reached not to include any mention of a national language. Instead, Hindi in Devanagari script was declared to be the official language of the union, but for "fifteen years from the commencement of the Constitution, the English Language shall continue to be used for all the official purposes of the Union for which it was being used immediately before such commencement."[79]

Article 343 (1) of the Constitution of India states "The Official Language of the Union government shall be Hindi in Devanagari script."[80]: 212 [81] Unless Parliament decided otherwise, the use of English for official purposes was to cease 15 years after the constitution came into effect, i.e. on 26 January 1965.[80]: 212 [81]

Main article: Hindi
Main article: Anti-Hindi agitations of Tamil Nadu

As the date for changeover approached, however, there was much alarm in the non-Hindi-speaking areas of India, especially in Kerala, Gujarat, Maharashtra, Tamil Nadu, Punjab, West Bengal, Karnataka, Puducherry and Andhra Pradesh. Accordingly, Jawaharlal Nehru ensured the enactment of the Official Languages Act, 1963,[82][83] which provided that English "may" still be used with Hindi for official purposes, even after 1965.[79] The wording of the text proved unfortunate in that while Nehru understood that "may" meant shall, politicians championing the cause of Hindi thought it implied exactly the opposite.[79]

In the event, as 1965 approached, India's new Prime Minister Lal Bahadur Shastri prepared to make Hindi paramount with effect from 26 January 1965. This led to widespread agitation, riots, self-immolations, and suicides in Tamil Nadu. The split of Congress politicians from the South from their party stance, the resignation of two Union ministers from the South, and the increasing threat to the country's unity forced Shastri to concede.[79][24]

As a result, the proposal was dropped,[84][85] and the Act itself was amended in 1967 to provide that the use of English would not be ended until a resolution to that effect was passed by the legislature of every state that had not adopted Hindi as its official language, and by each house of the Indian Parliament.[82]

Hindi

The Hindi-belt, including Hindi-related languages such as Rajasthani and Bhojpuri

In the

Hindi belt. Hindi (or Hindustani) is the native language of most people living in Delhi and Western Uttar Pradesh.[87]

"Modern Standard Hindi", a

official languages of the Union of India. In addition, it is one of only two languages used for business in Parliament. However, the Rajya Sabha now allows all 22 official languages on the Eighth Schedule to be spoken.[88]

Hindustani, evolved from khari boli (खड़ी बोली), a prominent tongue of Mughal times, which itself evolved from Apabhraṃśa, an intermediary transition stage from Prakrit, from which the major North Indian Indo-Aryan languages have evolved.[citation needed]

By virtue of its being a

Bambaiya Hindi in Mumbai. In addition, a trade language, Andaman Creole Hindi has also developed in the Andaman Islands.[89] In addition, by use in popular culture such as songs and films, Hindi also serves as a lingua franca across North-Central India.[citation needed
]

Hindi is widely taught both as a primary language and language of instruction and as a second tongue in many states.

English

Main articles: English language and Indian English

British colonialism in India resulted in English becoming a language for governance, business, and education. English, along with Hindi, is one of the two languages permitted in the Constitution of India for business in Parliament. Despite the fact that Hindi has official Government patronage and serves as a lingua franca over large parts of India, there was considerable opposition to the use of Hindi in the southern states of India, and English has emerged as a de facto lingua franca over much of India.[79][24] Journalist Manu Joseph, in a 2011 article in The New York Times, wrote that due to the prominence and usage of the language and the desire for English-language education, "English is the de facto national language of India. It is a bitter truth."[90] English language proficiency is highest among urban residents, wealthier Indians, Indians with higher levels of educational attainment, Christians, men and younger Indians.[91] In 2017, more than 58 percent of rural teens could read basic English, and 53 percent of fourteen year-olds & sixty percent of 18-year-olds could read English sentences.[92]

Scheduled languages

Konkani, Meitei and Nepali, thereby increasing the number of official regional languages of India to 18. The Eighth Schedule of the Constitution of India, as of 1 December 2007, lists 22 languages,[80]: 330  which are given in the table below together with the regions where they are used.[86]

Manipuri (third), Bengali (fourth) — based on 2011 census of India[94]
Language
Family
 ISO 639 code
Assamese Indo-Aryan as
Bengali (Bangla) Indo-Aryan bn
Bodo
Sino-Tibetan
 brx
Dogri
 Indo-Aryan doi
Gujarati Indo-Aryan gu
Hindi Indo-Aryan hi
Kannada Dravidian kn
Kashmiri Indo-Aryan ks
Konkani
 Indo-Aryan gom
Maithili Indo-Aryan mai
Malayalam Dravidian ml
Meitei (Manipuri)
Sino-Tibetan
 mni
Marathi Indo-Aryan mr
Nepali Indo-Aryan ne
Odia Indo-Aryan or
Punjabi Indo-Aryan pa
Sanskrit Indo-Aryan sa
Santali
Austroasiatic
 sat
Sindhi Indo-Aryan sd
Tamil Dravidian ta
Telugu Dravidian te
Urdu Indo-Aryan ur

The individual

states, the borders of most of which are or were drawn on socio-linguistic lines, can legislate their own official languages, depending on their linguistic demographics. The official languages chosen reflect the predominant as well as politically significant languages spoken in that state. Certain states having a linguistically defined territory may have only the predominant language in that state as its official language, examples being Karnataka and Gujarat, which have Kannada and Gujarati as their sole official language respectively. Telangana, with a sizeable Urdu-speaking Muslim population, and Andhra Pradesh[95] has two languages, Telugu and Urdu
, as its official languages.

Some states buck the trend by using minority languages as official languages. Jammu and Kashmir used to have Urdu, which is spoken by fewer than 1% of the population, as the sole official language until 2020. Meghalaya uses English spoken by 0.01% of the population. This phenomenon has turned majority languages into "minority languages" in a functional sense.[96]

In addition to official languages, a few states also designate official scripts.

State Official language(s) Additional official language(s) Mandated scripts
Andhra Pradesh Telugu[97] English,[98] Urdu[7]
Arunachal Pradesh English[99]
Assam[100]
Bodo
 Bengali in three districts of Barak Valley[101] Bodo is officially written in the Devanagari script.
Bihar Hindi[102] Urdu[102]
Chhattisgarh[103] Hindi[104] Chhattisgarhi Devanagari
Goa Konkani, English[105] Marathi[106]: 27 [107]
Gujarat Gujarati, Hindi[108]
Haryana[109] Hindi English,[106] Punjabi[110] Hindi should be written in Devanagari.

Punjabi should be written in Gurmukhi.

Himachal Pradesh[111] Hindi Sanskrit[112] Both Hindi and Sanskrit are written in Devanagari.
Jharkhand Hindi[99]
Nagpuri, Odia, Santali, Urdu[113][114]
Karnataka Kannada
Kerala Malayalam English
Madhya Pradesh[115] Hindi
Maharashtra[116] Marathi Devanagari
Manipur[117] Manipuri English Meetei mayek
Meghalaya English[118] Khasi and Garo[119] (associate official in districts)
Mizoram Mizo, English[120]
Nagaland English
Odisha Odia[121] English
Punjab Punjabi[106] Gurmukhi
Rajasthan Hindi
Sikkim English, Nepali, Sikkimese, Lepcha[106][122]
Newari, Rai, Sherpa and Tamang[106]
Tamil Nadu Tamil English
Telangana Telugu Urdu[123][124]
Tripura Bengali, English, Kokborok[125][126][127]
Uttar Pradesh Hindi Urdu[128]
Uttarakhand Hindi Sanskrit
West Bengal Bengali, English[106][129] Nepali in Darjeeling and Kurseong sub-divisions;[106]
Urdu, Hindi, Odia, Santali, Punjabi, Kamtapuri, Rajbanshi, Kudmali/Kurmali, Kurukh and Telugu in blocks, divisions or districts with population greater than 10 per cent[130][131][132][133]
Union territory Official language(s)[106] Additional official language(s)
Andaman and Nicobar Islands[134] Hindi, English
Dadra and Nagar Haveli and Daman and Diu[135][136] Gujarati
Delhi[137] Urdu, Punjabi
Ladakh
Chandigarh[138] English
Lakshadweep[139][140] Hindi,[139] Malayalam[140]
Jammu and Kashmir
Dogri, Hindi, Urdu, English[141]
Puducherry
Mahe)[b][142][143]
 English,
French[144]

In addition to states and union territories, India has autonomous administrative regions which may be permitted to select their own official language – a case in point being the

Bodo language as official for the region, in addition to Assamese and English already in use.[145] and Bengali in the Barak Valley,[101]
as its official languages.

Prominent languages of India

Hindi

Main article: Hindi
Bengaluru – Top to bottom, the languages are Hindi, Kannada, Tamil, Telugu, and Malayalam
. English and many other European languages are also provided here.

In

legislators
had the challenge of choosing a language for official communication as well as for communication between different linguistic regions across India. The choices available were:

  • Making "Hindi", which a plurality of the people (41%)[86] identified as their native language, the official language.
  • Making English, as preferred by non-Hindi speakers, particularly
    Anti-Hindi agitations
    .
  • Declare both Hindi and English as official languages and each state is given freedom to choose the official language of the state.

The

Official Languages Act in 1963,[146][147][148][149][150][151]
which provided for the continued use of English for official purposes along with Hindi, even after 1965.

Bengali

Main article: Bengali language

Native to the Bengal region, comprising the nation of

vocabulary base from Magadhi Prakrit and Pali, also borrowings from Sanskrit and other major borrowings from Persian, Arabic, Austroasiatic languages
and other languages in contact with.

Like most Indian languages, Bengali has a number of dialects. It exhibits

Bengali Language Movement in 1952.[155]

Assamese

Main article: Assamese language
A Bhagavata manuscript written in Early Assamese, from Dakhinpat Satra.

Asamiya or Assamese language is most popular in the state of

Indo-Aryan language
.

Marathi

Main article: Marathi language

Old Marathi
.

Marathi Language Day (मराठी दिन/मराठी दिवस (transl. Marathi Dina/Marathi Diwasa) is celebrated on 27 February every year across the Indian states of Maharashtra and Goa. This day is regulated by the State Government. It is celebrated on the birthday of eminent Marathi Poet Vi. Va. Shirwadkar, popularly known as Kusumagraj.

Marathi is the official language of Maharashtra and co-official language in the union territories of

Konkani is the sole official language; however, Marathi may also be used for all official purposes.[160]

Over a period of many centuries the Marathi language and people came into contact with many other languages and dialects. The primary influence of

Austroasiatic, Dravidian and foreign languages such as Persian and Arabic. Marathi contains loanwords from Persian, Arabic, English and a little from French and Portuguese
.

Meitei

Main article: Meitei language

Bengali script for writing.[162][163]

Meitei language is currently proposed to be included in the elite category of "

Classical Languages" of India.[164][165][166] Besides, it is also currently proposed to be an associate official language of Government of Assam. According to Leishemba Sanajaoba, the present titular king of Manipur and a Rajya Sabha member of Manipur state, by recognising Meitei as an associate official language of Assam, the identity, history, culture and tradition of Manipuris residing in Assam could be protected.[167][168][169]

Meitei Language Day (Manipuri Language Day) is celebrated on 20 August every year by the Manipuris across the Indian states of Manipur, Assam and Tripura. This day is regulated by the Government of Manipur. It is the commemoration of the day on which Meitei was included in the Eighth Schedule to the Constitution of India on the 20 August 1992.[170][171][172][173][174]

Telugu

Main article: Telugu language

Telugu is the

Dravidian language in India and around the world. Telugu is an official language in Andhra Pradesh, Telangana and Yanam, making it one of the few languages (along with Hindi, Bengali, and Urdu) with official status in more than one state. It is also spoken by a significant number of people in the Andaman and Nicobar Islands, Chhattisgarh, Karnataka, Maharashtra, Odisha, Tamil Nadu, Gujarat, and by the Sri Lankan Gypsy people. It is one of six languages with classical status in India. Telugu ranks fourth by the number of native speakers in India (81 million in the 2011 Census),[159]
fifteenth in the Ethnologue list of most-spoken languages worldwide and is the most widely spoken Dravidian language.

Tamil

Main article: Tamil language
15th-century anthology of Tamil religious poetry dedicated to Ganesha

Tamil is a

classical language by the Government of India in 2004. Tamil is one of the longest surviving classical languages in the world.[176][177] It has been described as "the only language of contemporary India which is recognisably continuous with a classical past".[178] The two earliest manuscripts from India,[179][180] acknowledged and registered by UNESCO Memory of the World register in 1997 and 2005, are in Tamil.[181] Tamil is an official language of Tamil Nadu, Puducherry, Andaman and Nicobar Islands, Sri Lanka and Singapore. It is also recognized as a minority language in Canada, Malaysia, Mauritius and South Africa
.

Urdu

Main article: Urdu

After independence,

Delhi, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar and Telangana
that have significant Muslim populations.

Gujarati

Main article: Gujarati language

Gujarati is an

union territories of Daman and Diu and Dadra and Nagar Haveli. According to the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA), 4.5% of population of India (1.21 billion according to 2011 census) speaks Gujarati. This amounts to 54.6 million speakers in India.[182]

Kannada

Main article: Kannada

Kannada is a Dravidian language which branched off from

Kannada-Tamil sub group around 500 B.C.E according to the Dravidian scholar Zvelebil.[183] It is the official language of Karnataka. According to the Dravidian scholars Steever and Krishnamurthy, the study of Kannada language is usually divided into three linguistic phases: Old (450–1200 CE), Middle (1200–1700 CE) and Modern (1700–present).[184][185] The earliest written records are from the 5th century,[186] and the earliest available literature in rich manuscript (Kavirajamarga) is from c. 850.[187][188] Kannada language has the second oldest written tradition of all languages of India.[189][190] Current estimates of the total number of epigraph present in Karnataka range from 25,000 by the scholar Sheldon Pollock to over 30,000 by the Sahitya Akademi,[191] making Karnataka state "one of the most densely inscribed pieces of real estate in the world".[192] According to Garg and Shipely, more than a thousand notable writers have contributed to the wealth of the language.[193][194]

Malayalam

Main article: Malayalam

Malayalam (

Grantha alphabet was adopted for writing and came to be known as Arya Eluttu.[200] This developed into the modern Malayalam script.[201]

Odia

Main article: Odia language

Odia (formerly spelled Oriya)[202] is the only modern language officially recognized as a classical language from the Indo-Aryan group. Odia is primarily spoken and has official language status in the Indian state of Odisha and has over 40 million speakers. It was declared as a classical language of India in 2014. Native speakers comprise 91.85% of the population in Odisha.[203][204] Odia originated from Odra Prakrit which developed from Magadhi Prakrit, a language spoken in eastern India over 2,500 years ago. The history of Odia language can be divided to Old Odia (3rd century BC −1200 century AD),[205] Early Middle Odia (1200–1400), Middle Odia (1400–1700), Late Middle Odia (1700–1870) and Modern Odia (1870 until present day). The National Manuscripts Mission of India have found around 213,000 unearthed and preserved manuscripts written in Odia.[206]

Santali

Main article: Santali language

eastern India by Santhal community of tribal and non-tribal.[207] It is written in Ol Chiki script invented by Raghunath Murmu at the end of 19th century.[208] Santali is spoken by 0.67% of India's population.[209][210] About 7 million people speak this language.[211] It is also spoken in Bangladesh and Nepal.[212][213] The language is major tribal language of Jharkhand and thus Santhal community is demanding to make it as the official language of Jharkhand.[214]

Punjabi

Main article: Punjabi language

Shahmukhi alphabet. It is mainly spoken in Punjab but also in neighboring areas. It is an official language of Delhi and Punjab
.

Maithili

Main article: Maithili language

National Capital Territory of Delhi.[218] In the 2011 census of India, It was reported by 13,583,464 people as their mother tongue comprising about 1.12% of the total population of India.[219]
In
Tirhuta was formerly the primary script for written Maithili. Less commonly, it was also written in the local variant of Kaithi.[221] Today it is written in the Devanagari script.[222]

In 2003, Maithili was included in the

Indian Constitution as a recognised regional language of India, which allows it to be used in education, government, and other official contexts.[223]

Classical languages of India

Main article:
Classical Languages of India
Further information: Meitei classical language movement

In 2004, the Government of India declared that languages that met certain requirements could be accorded the status of a "Classical Language" of India.[224]

Languages thus far declared to be Classical:

Over the next few years, several languages were granted the Classical status, and demands have been made for other languages, including

Manipuri).[235][236][237]

Other regional languages and dialects

The 2001 census identified the following native languages having more than one million speakers. Most of them are dialects/variants grouped under Hindi.[86]

Languages No. of native speakers[86]
Bhojpuri
 33,099,497
Rajasthani
 18,355,613
Magadhi/Magahi 13,978,565
Chhattisgarhi
 13,260,186
Haryanvi
 7,997,192
Marwari 7,936,183
Malvi 5,565,167
Mewari 5,091,697
Khorth/Khotta 4,725,927
Bundeli
 3,072,147
Bagheli
 2,865,011
Pahari 2,832,825
Laman/Lambadi
 2,707,562
Awadhi
 2,529,308
Harauti
 2,462,867
Garhwali 2,267,314
Nimadi
 2,148,146
Sadan/Sadri
 2,044,776
Kumauni
 2,003,783
Dhundhari
 1,871,130
Tulu 1,722,768
Surgujia
 1,458,533
Bagri Rajasthani 1,434,123
Banjari
 1,259,821
Nagpuria
 1,242,586
Surajpuri
 1,217,019
Kangri 1,122,843

Practical problems

"Scheduled" and "non-scheduled" official languages of Northeast Indian states; most of the languages in Northeast are unrecognized by the Eighth Schedule to the Constitution of India

India has several languages in use; choosing any single language as an official language presents problems to all those whose "mother tongue" is different. However, all the boards of education across India recognise the need for training people to one common language.[238] There are complaints that in North India, non-Hindi speakers have language trouble. Similarly, there are complaints that North Indians have to undergo difficulties on account of language when travelling to South India. It is common to hear of incidents that result due to friction between those who strongly believe in the chosen official language, and those who follow the thought that the chosen language(s) do not take into account everyone's preferences.[239] Local official language commissions have been established and various steps are being taken in a direction to reduce tensions and friction.[citation needed]

Language policy

Further information:
Three language formula and National Education Policy 2020

The

Three language formula
.

In the Prime Minister's Office

See also: Prime Minister's Office (India) and Prime Minister of India

The official website of the

22 official languages of the Indian Republic, in addition to English and Hindi.[240]

In the Press Information Bureau

Main article: Press Information Bureau

The Press Information Bureau (PIB) selects 14

Central Government press releases.[c][241][242]

In the Staff Selection Commission

Main article: Staff Selection Commission

The Staff Selection Commission (SSC) selected 13

22 official languages of the Indian Republic, to conduct the Multi-Tasking (Non-Technical) Staff examination for the first time in its history.[243][244]

In the Central Armed Police Forces

The

22 official languages of the Indian Republic, in addition to Hindi & English, to be used in the recruitment examination of the Central Armed Police Forces (CAPF). The decision was taken by the Home Minister after having an agreement between the Ministry of Home Affairs and the Staff Selection Commission.[245][246] The official decision will be converted into action from 1 January 2024; 3 months ago (2024-01-01).[247]

Language conflicts

Further information:
Pure Tamil movement, Meitei linguistic purism movement, and Gokak agitation

There are conflicts over

imposition of Hindi on its states' people as a result of the central government, the government of Maharashtra made the state language Marathi mandatory in educational institutions of CBSE and ICSE through Class/Grade 10.[249]

The

Ministry of Human Resource Development.[clarification needed][citation needed
]

Linguistic movements

In the history of India, various linguistic movements were and are undertaken by different literary, political and social associations as well as organisations, advocating for the changes and the developments of several languages, dialects and vernaculars in diverse critical, discriminative and unfavorable circumstances and situations.

Bengali

Further information: Bengali language
  • Bengali language movement in India

Meitei (Manipuri)

Further information: Meitei language

Rajasthani

Further information:
Rajasthani language
  • Rajasthani language
    since 1947

Tamil

Further information: Tamil language

Developmental works

In the age of technological advancements, the

Urdu
.

Meitei (Manipuri)

Further information: Meitei language, Meitei script, and Directorate of Language Planning and Implementation

On the 4 September 2013, the

Manipuri script) in Manipur.[251][252]

The Manipuri Sahitya Parishad is given annual financial support of ₹500,000 (equivalent to ₹750,000 or US$9,400 in 2023) by the Government of Manipur.[253][254][255]

Since 2020, the

Manipuri language).[256]

In September 2021, the

Manipuri script) in Manipur.[257][258][259]

The

Manipuri language), having certain terms and conditions.[260][261]

Sanskrit

Further information: Sanskrit

The

Central Government of India allocated ₹6438.4 million in the last three years for the development and the promotion of Sanskrit, ₹2311.5 million in 2019–20, around ₹2143.8 million in 2018–19, and ₹1983.1 million in 2017–18.[262][263]

Tamil

Further information: Tamil language

The

Central Government of India gave an allocation of Rs 105.9 million in 2017–18, Rs 46.5 million in 2018–19 and Rs 77 million in 2019–20 to the "Central Institute of Classical Tamil" for the development and the promotion of Tamil language.[262][264]

Telugu and Kannada

Further information:
Kannada language

The

Kannada language.[262][264]

Computerisation

Multi-pair translations
Language Language code Google Translate[265] Bhashini[266] Microsoft Translator[267] Yandex Translate[268]
IBM Watson[269]
Bengali bn Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes
Gujarati gu Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes
Hindi hi Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes
Kannada kn Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes
Malayalam ml Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes
Marathi mr Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes
Meitei (Manipuri) mni (in script specific case, mni-Mtei) Yes Beta No No No
Odia (Oriya) or Yes Yes Yes No No
Punjabi pa Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes
Tamil ta Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes
Telugu te Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes

Writing systems

Main articles:
Gurumukhi and other. Urdu is written in a script derived from Arabic. A few minor languages such as Santali use independent scripts (see Ol Chiki script
).

Various Indian languages have their own scripts.

Meitei Mayek, Odia with Odia script, Gujarati with Gujarati, etc. Urdu and Kashmiri, Saraiki and Sindhi are written in modified versions of the Perso-Arabic script. With this one exception, the scripts of Indian languages are native to India. Languages like Kodava that didn't have a script whereas Tulu which had a script adopted Kannada due to its readily available printing settings; these languages have taken up the scripts of the local official languages as their own and are written in the Kannada script.[275]

See also

Notes

  1. ISBN 978-0-521-79488-6
    . Retrieved 4 October 2021.
  2. ^ See Official languages of Puducherry
  3. Manipuri script
    ) in due course of time.
  4. Manipuri language
    ).
  5. Bengali script officially but Google Translate uses Meitei script
    only.
  6. ^ Punjabi language uses both
    Gurmukhi script
    only.
  1. ^ Although linguistically Hindi and Urdu are the same language called Hindustani, the government classifies them as separate languages instead of different standard registers of same language.

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External links

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