Classical music
Classical music generally refers to the
Rooted in the
The
Terminology and definition
Ideological origins
Both the English term "classical" and the German equivalent Klassik developed from the French classique, itself derived from the Latin word classicus, which originally referred to the highest class of Ancient Roman citizens.[11][n 1] In Roman usage, the term later became a means to distinguish revered literary figures;[11] the Roman author Aulus Gellius commended writers such as Demosthenes and Virgil as classicus.[13] By the Renaissance, the adjective had acquired a more general meaning: an entry in Randle Cotgrave's 1611 A Dictionarie of the French and English Tongues is among the earliest extant definitions, translating classique as "classical, formall [sic], orderlie, in due or fit ranke; also, approved, authenticall, chiefe, principall".[11][14] The musicologist Daniel Heartz summarizes this into two definitions: 1) a "formal discipline" and 2) a "model of excellence".[11] Like Gellius, later Renaissance scholars who wrote in Latin used classicus in reference to writers of classical antiquity;[12][n 2] however, this meaning only gradually developed, and was for a while subordinate to the broader classical ideals of formality and excellence.[15] Literature and visual arts—for which substantial Ancient Greek and Roman examples existed—did eventually adopt the term "classical" as relating to classical antiquity, but virtually no music of that time was available to Renaissance musicians, limiting the connection between classical music and the Greco-Roman world.[15][n 3]
It was in 18th-century England that the term 'classical' "first came to stand for a particular canon of works in performance."[15] London had developed a prominent public concert music scene, unprecedented and unmatched by other European cities.[11] The royal court had gradually lost its monopoly on music, in large part from instability that the Commonwealth of England's dissolution and the Glorious Revolution enacted on court musicians.[11][n 4] In 1672, the former court musician John Banister began giving popular public concerts at a London tavern;[n 5] his popularity rapidly inaugurated the prominence of public concerts in the London.[19] The conception of "classical"—or more often "ancient music"—emerged, which was still built on the principles of formality and excellence, and according to Heartz "civic ritual, religion and moral activism figured significantly in this novel construction of musical taste".[15] The performance of such music was specialized by the Academy of Ancient Music and later at the Concerts of Antient Music series, where the work of select 16th and 17th composers was featured,[20] especially George Frideric Handel.[15][n 6] In France, the reign of Louis XIV (r. 1638–1715) saw a cultural renaissance, by the end of which writers such as Molière, Jean de La Fontaine and Jean Racine were considered to have surpassed the achievements of classical antiquity.[21] They were thus characterized as "classical", as was the music of Jean-Baptiste Lully (and later Christoph Willibald Gluck), being designated as "l'opéra française classique".[21] In the rest of continental Europe, the abandonment of defining "classical" as analogous to the Greco-Roman World was slower, primarily because the formation of canonical repertoires was either minimal or exclusive to the upper classes.[15]
Many European commentators of the early 19th century found new unification in their definition of classical music: to juxtapose the older composers
Contemporary understanding
The contemporary understanding of the term "classical music" remains vague and multifaceted.
Complexity in
- "of acknowledged excellence"
- "of, relating to, or characteristic of a formal musical tradition, as distinguished from popular or folk music"
- and more specifically, "of or relating to formal European music of the late 18th and early 19th centuries, characterized by harmony, balance, and adherence to established compositional forms".
The last definition concerns what is now termed the Classical period, a specific stylistic era of European music from the second half of the 18th century to the beginning of the 19th century.[38]
History
Major eras of Western classical music | ||||||||||||
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Early music | ||||||||||||
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Common practice period | ||||||||||||
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Neue Musik | ||||||||||||
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Roots
The Western classical tradition formally begins with music created by and for the early Christian Church.
However, there are some indisputable musical continuations from the
Early music
Medieval
Medieval music includes Western European music from after the fall of the Western Roman Empire by 476 to about 1400. Monophonic chant, also called plainsong or Gregorian chant, was the dominant form until about 1100.[55] Christian monks developed the first forms of European musical notation in order to standardize liturgy throughout the Church.[56][57] Polyphonic (multi-voiced) music developed from monophonic chant throughout the late Middle Ages and into the Renaissance, including the more complex voicings of motets. During the earlier medieval period, the vocal music from the liturgical genre, predominantly Gregorian chant, was monophonic, using a single, unaccompanied vocal melody line.[58] Polyphonic vocal genres, which used multiple independent vocal melodies, began to develop during the high medieval era, becoming prevalent by the later 13th and early 14th century. Notable Medieval composers include Hildegard of Bingen, Léonin, Pérotin, Philippe de Vitry, Guillaume de Machaut, Francesco Landini, and Johannes Ciconia.
Many
Renaissance
The musical Renaissance era lasted from 1400 to 1600. It was characterized by greater use of instrumentation, multiple interweaving melodic lines, and the use of earlier forms of bass instruments. Social dancing became more widespread, so musical forms appropriate to accompanying dance began to standardize. It is in this time that the notation of music on a staff and other elements of musical notation began to take shape.[60] This invention made possible the separation of the composition of a piece of music from its transmission; without written music, transmission was oral, and subject to change every time it was transmitted. With a musical score, a work of music could be performed without the composer's presence.[61] The invention of the movable-type printing press in the 15th century had far-reaching consequences on the preservation and transmission of music.[62]
Many instruments originated during the Renaissance; others were variations of, or improvements upon, instruments that had existed previously. Some have survived to the present day; others have disappeared, only to be re-created in order to perform music on period instruments. As in the modern day, instruments may be classified as brass, strings, percussion, and woodwind. Brass instruments in the Renaissance were traditionally played by professionals who were members of
Vocal music in the Renaissance is noted for the flourishing of an increasingly elaborate polyphonic style. The principal liturgical forms which endured throughout the entire Renaissance period were masses and motets, with some other developments towards the end, especially as composers of sacred music began to adopt secular forms (such as the madrigal) for their own designs. Towards the end of the period, the early dramatic precursors of opera such as monody, the madrigal comedy, and the intermedio are seen. Around 1597, Italian composer Jacopo Peri wrote Dafne, the first work to be called an opera today. He also composed Euridice, the first opera to have survived to the present day.
Notable Renaissance composers include
Common-practice period
The common practice period is typically defined as the era between the formation and the dissolution of common-practice tonality.[citation needed] The term usually spans roughly two-and-a-half centuries, encompassing the Baroque, Classical, and Romantic periods.
Baroque
Baroque music is characterized by the use of complex tonal
During the Baroque era, keyboard music played on the harpsichord and pipe organ became increasingly popular, and the violin family of stringed instruments took the form generally seen today. Opera as a staged musical drama began to differentiate itself from earlier musical and dramatic forms, and vocal forms like the cantata and oratorio became more common.[67] For the first time, vocalists began adding ornamentals to the music.[65]
The theories surrounding
Baroque instruments included some instruments from the earlier periods (e.g., the hurdy-gurdy and recorder) and a number of new instruments (e.g., the oboe, bassoon, cello, contrabass and fortepiano). Some instruments from previous eras fell into disuse, such as the shawm,
One major difference between Baroque music and the classical era that followed it is that the types of instruments used in Baroque ensembles were much less standardized. A Baroque ensemble could include one of several different types of keyboard instruments (e.g., pipe organ or harpsichord),[69] additional stringed chordal instruments (e.g., a lute), bowed strings, woodwinds, and brass instruments, and an unspecified number of bass instruments performing the basso continuo,(e.g., a cello, contrabass, viola, bassoon, serpent, etc.).
Vocal oeuvres of the Baroque era included suites such as
Important composers of this era include Johann Sebastian Bach, Antonio Vivaldi, George Frideric Handel, Johann Pachelbel, Henry Purcell, Claudio Monteverdi, Barbara Strozzi, Domenico Scarlatti, Georg Philipp Telemann, Arcangelo Corelli, Alessandro Scarlatti, Jean-Philippe Rameau, Jean-Baptiste Lully, and Heinrich Schütz.
Classical
Though the term "classical music" includes all Western art music from the Medieval era to the early 2010s, the Classical Era was the period of Western art music from the 1750s to the early 1820s[73]—the era of Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart, Joseph Haydn, and Ludwig van Beethoven.
The Classical era established many of the norms of composition, presentation, and style, and when the piano became the predominant keyboard instrument. The basic forces required for an orchestra became somewhat standardized (though they would grow as the potential of a wider array of instruments was developed). Chamber music grew to include ensembles with as many as 8-10 performers for serenades. Opera continued to develop, with regional styles in Italy, France, and German-speaking lands. The opera buffa, a form of comic opera, rose in popularity. The symphony came into its own as a musical form, and the concerto was developed as a vehicle for displays of virtuoso playing skill. Orchestras no longer required a harpsichord, and were often led by the lead violinist (now called the concertmaster).[74]
Classical era musicians continued to use many of the instruments from the Baroque era, such as the cello, contrabass, recorder, trombone, timpani, fortepiano (the precursor to the modern
Wind instruments became more refined in the Classical era. While
Romantic
The music of the
In the 19th century, musical institutions emerged from the control of wealthy patrons, as composers and musicians could construct lives independent of the nobility. Increasing interest in music by the growing middle classes throughout western Europe spurred the creation of organizations for the teaching, performance, and preservation of music. The piano, which achieved its modern construction in this era (in part due to industrial advances in metallurgy) became widely popular with the middle class, whose demands for the instrument spurred many piano builders. Many symphony orchestras date their founding to this era.[77] Some musicians and composers were the stars of the day; some, like Franz Liszt and Niccolò Paganini, fulfilled both roles.[79]
European cultural ideas and institutions began to follow colonial expansion into other parts of the world. There was also a rise, especially toward the end of the era, of
In the Romantic era, the modern piano, with a more powerful, sustained tone and a wider range took over from the more delicate-sounding fortepiano. In the orchestra, the existing Classical instruments and sections were retained (string section, woodwinds, brass, and percussion), but these sections were typically expanded to make a fuller, bigger sound. For example, while a Baroque orchestra may have had two double bass players, a Romantic orchestra could have as many as ten. "As music grew more expressive, the standard orchestral palette just wasn't rich enough for many Romantic composers."[81]
The families of instruments used, especially in orchestras, grew larger; a process that climaxed in the early 20th century with very large orchestras used by late romantic and modernist composers. A wider array of percussion instruments began to appear. Brass instruments took on larger roles, as the introduction of
appear in some scores from the late 19th century onwards, usually featured as a solo instrument rather than as in integral part of the orchestra.The Wagner tuba, a modified member of the horn family, appears in Richard Wagner's cycle Der Ring des Nibelungen. It also has a prominent role in Anton Bruckner's Symphony No. 7 in E Major and is also used in several late romantic and modernist works by Richard Strauss, Béla Bartók, and others[83] Cornets appear regularly in 19th century scores, alongside trumpets which were regarded as less agile, at least until the end of the century.
Prominent composers of this era include Ludwig van Beethoven, Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky, Frédéric Chopin, Hector Berlioz, Franz Schubert, Robert Schumann, Felix Mendelssohn, Franz Liszt, Giuseppe Verdi, Richard Wagner, Johannes Brahms, Alexander Scriabin, Nikolai Medtner, Edvard Grieg, and Johann Strauss II. Gustav Mahler and Richard Strauss are commonly regarded as transitional composers whose music combines both late romantic and early modernist elements.
20th and 21st centuries
Modernist
Encompassing a wide variety of
Two musical movements that were dominant during this time were the
The orchestra continued to grow during the early years modernist era, peaking in the first two decades of the 20th century. Saxophones that appeared only rarely during the 19th century became more commonly used as supplementary instruments, but never became core members of the orchestra. While appearing only as featured solo instruments in some works, for example Maurice Ravel's orchestration of Modest Mussorgsky's Pictures at an Exhibition and Sergei Rachmaninoff's Symphonic Dances, the saxophone is included in other works such as Sergei Prokofiev's Romeo and Juliet Suites 1 and 2 and many other works as a member of the orchestral ensemble. In some compositions such as Ravel's Boléro, two or more saxophones of different sizes are used to create an entire section like the other sections of the orchestra. The euphonium is featured in a few late Romantic and 20th century works, usually playing parts marked "tenor tuba", including Gustav Holst's The Planets, and Richard Strauss's Ein Heldenleben.
Prominent composers of the early 20th century include Igor Stravinsky, Claude Debussy, Sergei Rachmaninoff, Sergei Prokofiev, Arnold Schoenberg, Nikos Skalkottas, Heitor Villa-Lobos, Anton Webern, Alban Berg, Cécile Chaminade, Paul Hindemith, Aram Khachaturian, George Gershwin, Amy Beach, Béla Bartók, and Dmitri Shostakovich, along with the aforementioned Mahler and Strauss as transitional figures who carried over from the 19th century.
Post-modern/contemporary
Postmodern music is a period of music that began as early as 1930 according to some authorities.[84][85] It shares characteristics with postmodernist art – that is, art that comes after and reacts against modernism.
Some other authorities have more or less equated postmodern music with the "contemporary music" composed well after 1930, from the late 20th century through to the early 21st century.[91][92] Some of the diverse movements of the postmodern/contemporary era include the neoromantic, neomedieval, minimalist, and post minimalist.
Contemporary classical music at the beginning of the 21st century was often considered to include all post-1945 musical forms.[93] A generation later, this term now properly refers to the music of today written by composers who are still alive; music that came into prominence in the mid-1970s. It includes different variations of modernist, postmodern, neoromantic, and pluralist music.[88]
Performance
Performance of classical music repertoire requires a proficiency in
The key characteristic of European classical music that distinguishes it from
Although Classical music in the 2000s has lost most of its tradition for
Women in classical music
Almost all of the composers who are described in music textbooks on classical music and whose works are widely performed as part of the
Historically, major professional
In 2013, an article in
Relationship to other music traditions
Popular music
Classical music has often incorporated elements or material from
George Gershwin's 1924 orchestral composition Rhapsody in Blue has been described as orchestral jazz or symphonic jazz. The composition combines elements of classical music with jazz-influenced effects.
Numerous examples show influence in the opposite direction, including popular songs based on classical music, the use to which
Folk music
Composers of classical music have often made use of folk music (music created by musicians who are commonly not classically trained, often from a purely oral tradition). Some composers, like Dvořák and Smetana,[115] have used folk themes to impart a nationalist flavor to their work, while others like Bartók have used specific themes lifted whole from their folk-music origins.[116] Khachaturian widely incorporated into his work the folk music of his native Armenia, but also other ethnic groups of the Middle East and Eastern Europe.[117][118]
Commercialization
Certain staples of classical music are often used commercially (either in advertising or in movie soundtracks). In television commercials, several passages have become
Similarly, movies and television often use standard, clichéd excerpts of classical music to convey refinement or opulence: some of the most-often heard pieces in this category include Bach's Cello Suite No. 1, Mozart's Eine kleine Nachtmusik, Vivaldi's Four Seasons, Mussorgsky's Night on Bald Mountain (as orchestrated by Rimsky-Korsakov), and Rossini's "William Tell Overture". Shawn Vancour argues the commercialization of classical music in the 1920s may have harmed the music industry.[119]
Education
During the 1990s, several research papers and popular books wrote on what came to be called the "
References
Notes
- ^ The Ancient Roman citizenship classes in question were derived from the guidelines set forth by the legendary king Servius Tullius in the Servian constitution.[12]
- ^ In 1690, many decades after Cotgrave's 1611 definition, Antoine Furetière's posthumous Dictionnaire universel echoed Aulus Gellius in praising Cicero, Julius Caesar, Sallust, Virgil, and Horace and referring to them as classique.[13]
- ^ This is why the Neoclassicism movement of the mid 18th-century was widespread in fields such as architecture and painting but not music.[16]
- ^ Before the beginning of the 18th-century, there was a brief flowering of court music following the Stuart Restoration.[11] Composers such as Matthew Locke and later Henry Purcell found considerable success,[17] particularly with the popular court masques.[18]
- ^ John Banister's concerts quickly gained popularity, allowing him to later move his venue to Lincoln's Inn Fields, and then Essex Street; at its peak, his ensemble consisted of nearly 50 musicians.[19]
- JSTOR 3128800.
- ^ Some critics, from the 19th to 21st centuries, defined the First Viennese School in different ways. Commentators such as Johann Wolfgang von Goethe and later Ludwig Finscher excluded Beethoven from the school entirely, while the musicologist Friedrich Blume included all three in addition to Franz Schubert.[22] Charles Rosen included Haydn, Mozart and Beethoven, but only their instrumental music.[22]
- ^ The earliest use of the term "classical music" in English literature given by the Oxford English Dictionary (OED) is in the 1829 diary of English musician Vincent Novello, who said "This is the place I should come to every Sunday when I wished to hear classical music correctly and judiciously performed".[27] However, this is predated by at least 9 years from the title of the English writer John Feltham Danneley's 1820 Introduction to the Elementary Principles of Thorough Bass and Classical Music.[28][29] A search in Google Books gives at least three uses of the term "classical music" in the first half of the 18th-century.[30]
- ^ In addition to the title of Taruskin 2005, see also, the titles of Grout 1973, Hanning 2002 and Stolba 1998, all of which include the term "Western music" but essentially exclude non-classical music in the Western world. Grout 1973 was first published in 1960, and it was not until the fifth edition prepared by Claude V. Palisca in 1996 that any information on jazz and popular music was included.[36]
- ^ The musicologist Ralph P. Locke cites composer Tan Dun as an example, and notes the title of a 2004 publication, Locating East Asia in Western Art Music.[37] See also the title of Barone, Joshua (23 July 2021). "Asian Composers Reflect on Careers in Western Classical Music". The New York Times. Archived from the original on 28 December 2021. Burkholder, Grout & Palisca 2014, p. 1009 note that "We may well wonder whether the term "Western [classical] music" is still appropriate when Western culture has spread around the world, and some of the most practices performers and interesting new composers come from China, Japan and Korea. Given its global reach, it may be time to rename this tradition, but as eclectic and diverse as it has become, its roots are still in Western culture reaching back through Europe to ancient Greece".
- ^ From all available evidence, it appears that no, or few, significant musical developments can be credited to Ancient Rome, who largely adopted the practices of their Ancient Greek predecessors.[42]
- ^ Musicologist Donald Jay Grout notes that even by the 20th century there were only fragments and a few more sizable examples of such Greco-Roman music that survive.[39]
- ^ The entirety of early medieval Europe may not have been without a notional system for music, see Gampel 2012, who argues against the traditional conclusion of Isidore of Seville's remark.
- ^ In 1997, the Vienna Philharmonic was "facing protests during a [US] tour" by the National Organization for Women and the International Alliance for Women in Music. Finally, "after being held up to increasing ridicule even in socially conservative Austria, members of the orchestra gathered [on 28 February 1997] in an extraordinary meeting on the eve of their departure and agreed to admit a woman, Anna Lelkes, as harpist."[102] As of 2013, the orchestra has six female members; one of them, violinist Albena Danailova became one of the orchestra's concertmasters in 2008, the first woman to hold that position.[103] In 2012, women still made up just 6% of the orchestra's membership. VPO president Clemens Hellsberg said the VPO now uses completely screened blind auditions.[104]
Citations
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- ^ a b c Schulenberg 2000, p. 100.
- ^ Schulenberg 2000, pp. 100–101.
- ^ a b Schulenberg 2000, pp. 102–104.
- ^ a b Schulenberg 2000, pp. 104–105.
- ^ Schulenberg 2000, p. 110.
- ^ Schulenberg 2000, p. 113.
- ^ Owens 2008, § para. 2.
- ^ Owens 2008, § para. 7.
- ^ a b c d e f g h Heartz 2001, § para. 1.
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- ^ Weber 1999, p. 345.
- ^ a b Heartz 2001, "2. Earlier 'classicisms'": § para. 1.
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- ^ Grout 1973, pp. 75–76.
- ^ Grout 1973, pp. 175–176.
- ^ Grout 1973, pp. 72–74.
- ^ Grout 1973, p. 222–225.
- ^ ISBN 978-1-58340-674-8.
- ^ Grout 1973, pp. 300–32.
- ^ Grout 1973, pp. 341–355.
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Sources
Books
- Albright, Daniel (2004). Modernism and Music: An Anthology of Sources. Chicago: ISBN 0-226-01267-0.
- Beard, David; Gloag, Kenneth (2005). Musicology: The Key Concepts. London: ISBN 978-0-415-31692-7.
- ISBN 978-0-393-91829-8.
- ISBN 978-1-904041-70-2.
- ISBN 978-0-393-92915-7.
- ISBN 978-0-393-09416-9.
- ISBN 0-393-97775-7.
- ISBN 978-0-393-09090-1.
- ISBN 0-8386-3532-6.
- McHard, James L. (2008). The Future of Modern Music: A Philosophical Exploration of Modernist Music in the 20th Century and Beyond (3rd ed.). Livonia: Iconic Press. ISBN 978-0-9778195-1-5.
- Metzer, David Joel (2009). Musical Modernism at the Turn of the Twenty-first Century. Music in the Twentieth Century 26. Cambridge: ISBN 978-0-521-51779-9.
- Meyer, Leonard B. (1994). Music, the Arts, and Ideas: Patterns and Predictions in Twentieth-Century Culture (2nd ed.). Chicago: ISBN 0-226-52143-5.
- Pauly, Reinhard G. (1988). Music in the Classic Period (1st ed.). Englewood Cliffs: Prentice Hall.
- ISBN 978-0-393-09750-4.
- Stolba, K Marie (1998). The Development of Western Music: A History (3rd ed.). New York: ISBN 0-697-29379-3.
- Sullivan, Henry W. (1995). The Beatles with Lacan: Rock 'n' Roll as Requiem for the Modern Age. Sociocriticism: Literature, Society and History Series 4. New York: ISBN 0-8204-2183-9.
- ISBN 978-0-679-72805-4.
- ISBN 978-0-19-516979-9.
- Weber, William (1999). "The History of Musical Canon" (PDF). In ISBN 978-0-19-879003-7.
- Yudkin, Jeremy (1989). Music in Medieval Europe (1st ed.). Upper Saddle River: ISBN 978-0-13-608192-0.
Journal and encyclopedia articles
- ISBN 978-1-56159-263-0. (subscription or UK public library membershiprequired)
- Bowles, Edmund A. (1954). "Haut and Bas: The Grouping of Musical Instruments in the Middle Ages". JSTOR 20531877.
- Gampel, Alan (2012). "Papyrological Evidence of Musical Notation From the 6th to the 8th Centuries". JSTOR 24427165.
- ISBN 978-1-56159-263-0. (subscription or UK public library membershiprequired)
- S2CID 252447994.
- McVeigh, Simon (2001). "London (i)". ISBN 978-1-56159-263-0. (subscription or UK public library membershiprequired)
- Morgan, Robert P. (1984). "Secret Languages: The Roots of Musical Modernism". S2CID 161937907.
- Schulenberg, David (2000). "History of European Art Music". In Rice, Timothy; Porter, James; Goertzen, Chris (eds.). ISBN 0-8240-6034-2.
- Owens, Tom C. (2008). "Classical Music". In ISBN 978-0-19-517632-2.
Further reading
- Beckerman, Michael; ISBN 978-1-80064-116-7.
- Bryant, Wanda (2000). "Ancient Greek Music". In Rice, Timothy; Porter, James; Goertzen, Chris (eds.). ISBN 0-8240-6034-2.
- ISBN 0-393-97775-7.
- Johnson, Julian (2002). Who Needs Classical Music?: Cultural Choice and Musical Value. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
- ISBN 978-0-520-25082-6.
- ISBN 0-8240-6034-2.
- Nettl, Bruno (2014) [2001]. "Music". ISBN 978-1-56159-263-0. (subscription or UK public library membershiprequired)
- ISBN 978-0674011632.
- ISBN 0-19-311316-3.
- Seebass, Tilman (2000). "Notation and Transmission in European Music History". In Rice, Timothy; Porter, James; Goertzen, Chris (eds.). ISBN 0-8240-6034-2.
- Stolba, K Marie (1998). The Development of Western Music: A History (3rd ed.). New York: ISBN 0-697-29379-3.
External links
- Grove Music Online – online version of The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians.
- MGG Online – online version of Die Musik in Geschichte und Gegenwart
- Historical classical recordings from the British Library Sound Archive
- Official ClassicalMusicOnly WebSite