Clathrus ruber

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Clathrus ruber
Scientific classification Edit this classification
Domain: Eukaryota
Kingdom: Fungi
Division: Basidiomycota
Class: Agaricomycetes
Order: Phallales
Family: Phallaceae
Genus: Clathrus
Species:
C. ruber
Binomial name
Clathrus ruber
P.Micheli ex Pers. (1801)
Synonyms[1][2]
  • Clathrus flavescens Pers. (1801)
  • Clathrus cancellatus Tourn. ex Fr. (1823)
  • Clathrus nicaeensis Barla (1879)
  • Clathrus ruber var. flavescens (Pers.) Quadr. & Lunghini (1990)

Clathrus ruber is a species of fungus in the family Phallaceae, and the type species of the genus Clathrus. It is commonly known as the latticed stinkhorn, the basket stinkhorn, or the red cage, alluding to the striking fruit bodies that are shaped somewhat like a round or oval hollow sphere with interlaced or latticed branches. The species was illustrated in the scientific literature during the 16th century, but was not officially described until 1729.

The fruit body initially appears like a whitish "egg" attached to the ground at the base by cords called

beta-carotene. The gleba has a fetid odor, somewhat like rotting meat
, which attracts flies and other insects to help disperse its spores.

The fungus is

woodchip garden mulches. Although considered primarily a European species, C. ruber has been introduced to other areas, and now has a wide distribution that includes all continents except Antarctica. Although the edibility
of the fungus is not known with certainty, it has a deterrent odor. It was poorly regarded in southern European folklore, suggesting that those who handled the mushroom risked contracting various ailments.

Taxonomy

Micheli's 1729 illustration
Phylogeny and relationships of C. ruber and selected Phallaceae species based on ribosomal DNA sequences[3]

Clathrus ruber was illustrated in 1560 by the Swiss naturalist

Conrad Gesner in his Nomenclator Aquatilium Animantium—Gesner mistook the mushroom for a marine organism.[4] It appeared in a woodcut in John Gerard's 1597 Great Herball,[5] shortly thereafter in Carolus Clusius' 1601 Fungorum in Pannoniis Observatorum Brevis Historia,[6] and was one of the species featured in Cassiano dal Pozzo's museo cartaceo ("paper museum") that consisted of thousands of illustrations of the natural world.[7]

The fungus was first

Elias Fries in 1823;[10] Clathrus nicaeensis, published by Jean-Baptiste Barla in 1879;[11] and Clathrus ruber var. flavescens, published by Livio Quadraccia and Dario Lunghini in 1990.[12][13]

Clathrus ruber is the type species of the genus Clathrus, and is part of the group of Clathrus species known as the Laternoid series. Common features uniting this group include the vertical arms of the receptacle (fruit body) that are not joined together at the base, and the spongy structure of the receptacle.[14] According to a molecular analysis published in 2006, out of the about 40 Phallales species used in the study, C. ruber is most closely related to Aseroe rubra, Clathrus archeri, Laternea triscapa, and Clathrus chrysomycelinus.[3]

The generic name Clathrus is derived from

former Yugoslavia as veštičije srce or vještičino srce, meaning "witch's heart".[19] This is still the case in parts of rural France, where it is known as cœur de sorcière.[20]

Description

View the Mycomorphbox template that generates the following list
Glebal hymenium
No distinct cap
Hymenium attachment is not applicable
Stipe has a volva
Spore print is olive to olive-brown
Ecology is
saprotrophic

Before the volva opens, the fruiting body is egg-shaped to roughly spherical, up to 6 cm (2+1⁄4 in) in diameter, with a gelatinous interior up to 3 mm (1⁄8 in) thick. White to grayish in color, it is initially smooth, but develops a network of polygonal marks on the surface prior to opening as the internal structures expand and stretch the peridium taut.[21] The fruit body, or receptacle, bursts the egg open as it expands (a process that can take as little as a few hours),[6] and leaves the remains of the peridium as a cup or volva surrounding the base.[21] The receptacle ranges in color from red to pale orange, and it is often lighter in color approaching the base. The color appears to be dependent upon the temperature and humidity of the environment.[22] The receptacle consists of a spongy network of "arms" interlaced to make meshes of unequal size. At the top of the receptacle, the arms are up to 1.5 cm (1⁄2 in) thick, but they taper down to smaller widths near the base. A cross-section of the arm reveals it to be spongy, and made up of one wide inner tube and two indistinct rows of tubes towards the outside. The outer surface of the receptacle is ribbed or wrinkled.[21] There are 7–20 angular windows[23] and 80–120 mesh holes in the receptacle.[24]

A considerable variation in height has been reported for the receptacle, ranging from 5 to 20 cm (2 to 8 in) tall.

mycelia). The dark olive-green to olive-brown, foul-smelling sticky gleba covers the inner surface of the receptacle, except near the base. The odor—described as resembling rotting meat[25][26]—attracts flies, other insects, and, in one report, a scarab beetle (Scarabaeus sacer)[27] that help disperse the spores.[22][28] The putrid odor—and people's reaction to it—have been well documented. In 1862 Mordecai Cubitt Cooke wrote "it is recorded of a botanist who gathered one for the purpose of drying it for his herbarium, that he was compelled by the stench to rise during the night and cast the offender out the window."[29] American mycologist David Arora called the odor "the vilest of any stinkhorn".[22] The receptacle collapses about 24 hours after its initial eruption from the egg.[6]

The

Scanning electron microscopy has revealed that C. ruber (in addition to several other Phallales species) has a hilar scar—a small indentation in the surface of the spore where it was previously connected to the basidium via the sterigma.[30] The basidia (spore-bearing cells) are six-spored.[31]

  • Receptacle emerging from the volva
    Receptacle emerging from the volva
  • Close-up of the spongy latticed "arms"
    Close-up of the spongy latticed "arms"
  • Decaying exemplar
    Decaying exemplar

Biochemistry

Lycopene
beta-carotene

Like other stinkhorn fungi, C. ruber

enzymatic breakdown of the gleba with simultaneous formation of odorous compounds. Compounds like dimethyl sulfide, aldehydes, and amines—which contribute to the disagreeable odor of the gleba—are produced by the enzymatic decarboxylation of keto acids and amino acids, but the enzymes will only work in the presence of manganese.[6] A chemical analysis of the elemental composition of the gelatinous outer layer, the embryonic receptacle and the gleba showed the gelatinous layer to be richest in potassium, calcium, manganese, and iron ions. Calcium ion stabilizes the polysaccharide gel, protecting the embryonic receptacle from drying out during the growth of the egg. Potassium is required for the gelatinous layer to retain its osmotic pressure and retain water; high concentrations of the element are needed to support the rapid growth of the receptacle. The high concentration of elements suggests that the gelatinous layer has a "placenta-like" function—serving as a reservoir from which the receptacle may draw upon as it rapidly expands.[6]

beta-carotene—the same compounds responsible for the red and orange colors of tomatoes and carrots, respectively. Lycopene is also the main pigment in the closely related fungus Clathrus archeri, while beta-carotene is the predominant pigment in the Phallaceae species Mutinus caninus, M. ravenelii, and M. elegans.[32]

Similar species

C. columnatus
C. crispus

Clathrus ruber may be distinguished from the closely related tropical species C. crispus by the absence of the corrugated rims which surround each mesh of the C. crispus fruit body.[33] The phylogenetically close species C. chrysomycelinus has a yellow receptacle with arms that are structurally simpler, and its gleba is concentrated on specialized "glebifers" located at the lattice intersections. It is known only from Venezuela to southern Brazil.[21] Clathrus columnatus has a fruit body with two to five long vertical orange or red spongy columns, joined together at the apex.[34]

Habitat and distribution

Like most of the species of the order

saprobic—a decomposer of wood and plant matter—and is commonly found fruiting in mulch beds.[35] The fungus grows alone or clustered together near woody debris, in lawns, gardens, and cultivated soil.[36]

Clathrus ruber was originally described by Micheli from Italy. It is considered native to southern and central continental Europe, as well as Macaronesia (the Azores[21] and the Canary Islands[37]), western Turkey,[38] North Africa (Algeria), and western Asia (Iran).[21] The fungus is rare in central Europe,[19] and is listed in the Red data book of Ukraine.[39]

The fungus has probably been

Georgia, Hawaii, Alabama, Virginia, North Carolina, and New York),[45] as well as in Canada, Mexico, and Australasia.[46] The species was also reported from South America (Argentina).[47] In China, it has been collected from Guangdong, Sichuan, Guizhou, and Tibet.[24] Records from Japan[48] are referable to Clathrus kusanoi; records from the Caribbean are probably of C. crispus.[21]

In North America, the species can be found from October to March.[23]

Toxicity

Various stages of development with some "eggs" bisected

Although edibility for C. ruber has not been officially documented, its foul smell would dissuade most people from eating it. In general, stinkhorn mushrooms are considered edible when still in the egg stage, and are even considered delicacies in some parts of Europe and Asia, where they are pickled raw and sold in markets as "devil's eggs".[22] An 1854 report provides a cautionary tale to those considering consuming the mature fruit body. Dr. F. Peyre Porcher, of Charleston, South Carolina, described an account of poisoning caused by the mushroom:

A young person having eaten a bit of it, after six hours suffered from a painful tension of the lower stomach, and violent convulsions. He lost the use of his speech, and fell into a state of stupor, which lasted for forty-eight hours. After taking an emetic he threw up a fragment of the mushroom, with two worms, and mucus, tinged with blood. Milk, oil, and emollient fomentations, were then employed with success.[49]

C. ruber is generally listed as inedible or poisonous in many British mushroom publications from 1974 to 2008.

British mycologist

skin rashes or cause convulsions.[50]

In culture

Mycologist

German Mycological Society described it as "like an alien from a science fiction horror film" and named the species the 2011 "Mushroom of the Year".[51]

References

  1. ^ "Clathrus ruber P. Micheli ex Pers". Index Fungorum. CAB International. Retrieved 2010-07-03.
  2. ^ "Clathrus ruber P. Micheli ex Pers. 1801". MycoBank. International Mycological Association. Retrieved 2010-07-03.
  3. ^
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  4. ^ Holthius LB (1996). "Original watercolours donated by Cornelius Sittardus to Conrad Gesner, and published by Gesner in his (1558–1670) works on aquatic animals" (PDF). Zoologische Mededelingen. 70 (11): 169–96.
  5. doi:10.1016/s0007-1536(17)80018-8. Archived from the original
    on 2015-09-23. Retrieved 2011-02-07.
  6. ^ a b c d e f g Stijve T. (1997). "Close encounters with Clathrus ruber, the latticed stinkhorn" (PDF). The Australasian Mycologist. 16 (1): 11–15. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2014-10-05.
  7. ISBN 1-905375-05-0
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  8. ^ Micheli PA (1729). Nova plantarum genera iuxta Tournefortii methodum disposita (in Latin). Florence, Italy: Typis Bernardi Paperinii. p. 214.
  9. ^ "Clathrus flavescens Pers. 1801". MycoBank. International Mycological Association. Retrieved 2010-07-04.
  10. ^ Fries EM (1823). Systema Mycologicum (in Latin). Vol. 2. Lundin, Sweden: Ex Officina Berlingiana. p. 288.
  11. ^ "Clathrus nicaeensis Barla". MycoBank. International Mycological Association. Retrieved 2010-07-04.
  12. ^ Quadraccia L, Lunghini D (1990). "Contributo alla conoscenza dei macromiceti della tenuta Presidenziale di Castelporziano (Micoflora del Lazio II)" [Contributions to the knowledge of the macromycetes of the Presidential estate of Castelporziano (Mycoflora of Lazio II)]. Quaderni dell'Accademia Nazionale dei Lincei (in Italian). 264: 49–120.
  13. ^ "Clathrus ruber var. flavescens(Pers.) Quadr. & Lunghini". MycoBank. International Mycological Association. Retrieved 2010-07-04.
  14. ^ "Clathrus P. Micheli ex L. 1753". MycoBank. International Mycological Association. Retrieved 2010-07-03.
  15. ^ Rea C. (1922). British Basidiomycetes: A Handbook to the Larger British Fungi. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. p. 21.
  16. ^ Phillips R. "Clathrus ruber". Rogers Mushrooms. Rogers Plants Ltd. Archived from the original on 2011-07-16. Retrieved 2010-07-04.
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  18. ^ "Recommended English Names for Fungi in the UK" (PDF). British Mycological Society. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2011-07-16.
  19. ^ a b Ivancevic B, Tatic B (2003). "First record of Clathrus ruber from Serbia". Mycologia Balcanica. 1: 59–60.
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  28. ^ Stijve T. (1996). "Stinkhorns in abundance". Coolia (in Dutch). 39 (4): 229–36.
  29. ^ Cooke MC (1862). A Plain and Easy Account of British Fungi; With Descriptions of the Esculent and Poisonous Species and a Tabular Arrangement of Orders and Genera. London, UK: Robert Hardwicke. p. 93.
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  34. ^ Kuo M. (August 2006). "Clathrus columnatus". MushroomExpert.com. Retrieved 2011-02-07.
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  37. ^ Eckblad F-E (1975). "Additions and corrections to the Gasteromycetes of the Canary Islands". Norwegian Journal of Botany. 22 (4): 243–48.
  38. ^ Alli H, Işiloğlu M, Solak MH (2007). "Macrofungi of Aydin Province" (PDF). Mycotaxon. 99: 163–65. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2011-02-10.
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  45. ^ Burk WR (1979). "Clathrus ruber in California USA and worldwide distributional records". Mycotaxon. 8 (2): 463–68.
  46. ^ Cunningham GH (1931). "The Gasteromycetes of Australasia. XI. The Phallales, part II". Proceedings of the Linnean Society of New South Wales. 56 (3): 182–200.
  47. ^ Domínguez de Toledo L. (1995). "Gasteromycetes (Eumycota) del centro y oeste de la Argentina. II. Orden Phallales" [Gasteromycetes (Eumycota) from central and western Argentina: II. Order Phallales]. Darwiniana (in Spanish). 33: 195–210.
  48. ^ Minikata K. (1928). "Clathrus cancellatus TOURNEFORT 本邦二産ス" [Clathrus cancellatus Tournefort new to Japan] (PDF). Botanical Magazine (Tokyo) (in Japanese). 42 (496): 243–44.
  49. ^ Porcher FP (1854). "On the medicinal and toxicological properties of the cryptogamic plants of the United States". Transactions of the American Medical Association. 7: 280.
  50. ^ a b Ramsbottom J. (1953). Mushrooms & Toadstools: A Study of the Activities of Fungi. London, UK: Collins. pp. 187–88.
  51. ^ "Pilz des Jahres 2011: Roter Gitterling (Clathrus ruber Pers.)" (in German). Deutsche Gesellschaft für Mykologie. Retrieved 2011-02-07. Diese Kreatur sieht eher aus wie ein Alien aus einem Sciencefictionhorrorfilm.

External links

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