Pope Clement VII
Basilica of Santa Maria sopra Minerva, Rome | |
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Parents | Giuliano de' Medici Fioretta Gorini |
Previous post(s) |
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Motto | Candor illæsus (Innocence inviolate) |
Coat of arms | |
Other popes named Clement |
Papal styles of Pope Clement VII | |
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His Holiness | |
Spoken style | Your Holiness |
Religious style | Holy Father |
Posthumous style | None |
Pope Clement VII (
Elected in 1524 at the end of the
The complex political situation of the 1520s thwarted Clement's efforts.
In contrast to his tortured pontificate, Clement was personally respectable and devout, possessing a "dignified propriety of character", "great acquirements both theological and scientific", as well as "extraordinary address and penetration—Clement VII, in serener times, might have administered the Papal power with high reputation and enviable prosperity. But with all of his profound insight into the political affairs of Europe, Clement does not seem to have comprehended the altered position of the Pope" in relation to Europe's emerging nation-states and Protestantism.[9]
Clement left a significant cultural legacy in the Medici tradition.[10] He commissioned artworks by Raphael, Benvenuto Cellini, and Michelangelo, including Michelangelo's The Last Judgment in the Sistine Chapel.[11][12][13] In matters of science, Clement is best known for approving, in 1533, Nicolaus Copernicus's theory that the Earth revolves around the Sun—99 years before Galileo Galilei's heresy trial for similar ideas.[14][15][16]
Early life
Giulio de' Medici's life began under tragic circumstances. On 26 April 1478—exactly one month before his birth—his father,
Thereafter, Lorenzo the Magnificent raised him as one of his own sons, alongside his children Giovanni (the future
Giulio's natural inclination was for the clergy, but his illegitimacy barred him from high-ranking positions in the Church. So Lorenzo the Magnificent helped him carve out a career as a soldier.
Following the misfortunes of Lorenzo the Magnificent's firstborn son, Piero the Unfortunate, the Medici were expelled from Florence in 1494.[22] Over the next six years, Cardinal Giovanni and Giulio wandered throughout Europe together—twice getting arrested (first in Ulm, and later in Rouen). Each time Piero the Unfortunate bailed them out.[17] In 1500, both returned to Italy and concentrated their efforts on re-establishing their family in Florence. Both were present at the Battle of Ravenna in 1512, where Cardinal Giovanni was captured by the French but Giulio escaped; this led to Giulio becoming an emissary to Pope Julius II.[23] That same year, with the assistance of Pope Julius and the Spanish troops of Ferdinand II of Aragon, the Medici retook control of Florence.[17]
Paternity of Alessandro de' Medici
In 1510, while the Medici were living near Rome, a servant in their household—identified in documents as
Regardless of his paternity, throughout Alessandro's brief life, Giulio—as Pope Clement VII—showed him great favoritism, elevating Alessandro over
Cardinal
Under Pope Leo X
Giulio de' Medici appeared on the world stage in March 1513, at the age of 35,[2] when his cousin Giovanni de' Medici was elected Pope, taking the name Leo X. Pope Leo X reigned until his death on 1 December 1521.
"Learned, clever, respectable, and industrious",[
Cardinal Giulio's reputation during the reign of Leo X is recorded by contemporary Marco Minio, the Venetian ambassador to the Papal Court, who wrote in a letter to the Venetian Senate in 1519: "Cardinal de' Medici, the Pope's
Statesmanship
While Cardinal Giulio was not officially appointed Vice-Chancellor of the Church (second-in-command) until 9 March 1517, in practice Leo X governed in partnership with his cousin from the beginning.
Cardinal Giulio's foreign policy was shaped by the idea of la libertà d'Italia, which aimed to free Italy and the Church from French and Imperial domination.
Armed conflicts
Giulio de' Medici led numerous armed conflicts as a cardinal. Commenting on this, his contemporary Francesco Guicciardini wrote that Cardinal Giulio was better suited to arms than to the priesthood.[34] He served as papal legate to the army in a campaign against Francis I in 1515, alongside inventor Leonardo da Vinci.[35]
Achievements
Cardinal Giulio's other endeavors on behalf of Pope Leo X were similarly successful, such that "he had the credit of being the prime mover of papal policy throughout the whole of Leo's pontificate".
Gran Maestro of Florence
Cardinal Giulio governed Florence between 1519 and 1523, following the death of its civic ruler,
On the death of Pope Leo X in 1521, Adams writes there was a "ready inclination in all of the principal citizens [of Florence], and a universal desire among the people, to maintain the state in the hands of the Cardinal de' Medici; and all this felicity arose from his good government, which since the death of the Duke Lorenzo, had been universally agreeable."[5]
Under Pope Adrian VI
When Pope Leo X died on 1 December 1521, Cardinal Giulio was "widely expected to succeed him"—but instead, during the conclave of 1522, the College of Cardinals elected a compromise candidate,
In conclave, Cardinal Giulio controlled the largest voting bloc, but his enemies forced the election to a stalemate.[39] Among them were Cardinal Francesco Soderini, a Florentine whose family had lost a power struggle to the Medici "and held a grudge"; Cardinal Pompeo Colonna, a Roman nobleman who wanted to become Pope himself; and a group of French cardinals who "were unwilling to forget Leo X's treachery to their King".[39][35]
Realizing that his candidacy was in jeopardy, "Cardinal Giulio now chose to make an astute tactical move. He declared modestly that he was unworthy of such high office; instead, he suggested the little-known Dutch scholar Cardinal Adriaan Boeyens, an ascetic and deeply spiritual man who had been tutor to the Holy Roman Emperor Charles V. Cardinal Giulio was sure that Cardinal Boeyens would be rejected—on the grounds of his obscurity, his lack of political expertise and the fact that he was not Italian. The selfless suggestion that had been made by Cardinal Giulio de' Medici would then demonstrate to all that he was in fact the ideal candidate. But this move backfired badly, Cardinal Giulio's bluff was called and Cardinal Boeyens was elected as Pope Adrian VI."[35]
During his 20-month papacy, Adrian VI "seemed to set great store by Cardinal Medici's opinions ... And all the other cardinals were kept distinctly at arm's-length."[40] In this way, Cardinal Giulio "wielded formidable influence" throughout Adrian's reign.[41] Splitting time between the Palazzo Medici in Florence and the Palazzo della Cancelleria in Rome, Cardinal Giulio "lived there as a generous Medici was expected to live, a patron of artists and musicians, a protector of the poor, a lavish host".[42]
Assassination plot of 1522
In 1522, rumors began to swirl that Cardinal Giulio—lacking legitimate successors to rule Florence—planned to abdicate rule of the city and "leave the government freely in the people".[5] When it became clear that these rumors were untrue, a faction of mostly elite Florentines hatched a plot to assassinate him and then install their own government under his "great adversary", Cardinal Francesco Soderini.[43][5] Soderini encouraged the plot, exhorting both Adrian and Francis I of France to strike against Giulio and invade his allies in Sicily. This did not happen. Instead of breaking with Giulio, Adrian had Cardinal Soderini imprisoned.[43] Afterward, the principal conspirators were "declared rebels", and some were "apprehended and beheaded; by which means Giulio was again secured [as leader of Florence]."[5]
Pope
Following Adrian VI's death on 14 September 1523, Cardinal Giulio overcame the opposition of the French king
Pope Clement VII brought to the papal throne a high reputation for political ability and possessed in fact all the accomplishments of a wily diplomat. But his contemporaries considered him worldly and indifferent to the perceived dangers of the
At his accession, Clement VII sent the
Continental and Medici politics
But deeply concerned about Imperial arrogance, he was to pick up with France again when Francis I was freed after the
Like his cousin Pope Leo X, Clement was considered too generous to his Medici relatives, draining the Vatican treasuries. This included the assignment of positions all the way up to Cardinal, lands, titles, and money. These actions prompted reform measures after Clement's death to help prevent such excessive nepotism.[48]
Evangelization
In his 1529 bull Intra Arcana Clement VII gave a grant of permissions and privileges to Charles V and the Spanish Empire, which included the power of patronage within their colonies in the Americas.[49][50]
Sack of Rome
This section needs additional citations for verification. (March 2016) |
The Pope's wavering politics also caused the rise of the Imperial party inside the Curia: Cardinal Pompeo Colonna's soldiers pillaged Vatican Hill and gained control of the whole of Rome in his name. The humiliated Pope promised therefore to bring the Papal States to the Imperial side again. But soon after, Colonna left the siege and went to Naples, not keeping his promises and dismissing the Cardinal from his charge.[contradictory] From this point on, Clement VII could do nothing but follow the fate of the French party to the end.[ambiguous]
Soon he found himself alone in Italy too, as Alfonso I d'Este, duke of Ferrara, had supplied artillery to the Imperial army, causing the League Army to keep a distance behind the horde of Landsknechts led by Charles III, Duke of Bourbon and Georg von Frundsberg, allowing them to reach Rome without harm.[dubious ]
Charles of Bourbon died while mounting a ladder during the short siege and his starving troops, unpaid and left without a guide, felt free to ravage Rome from 6 May 1527. The many incidents of murder, rape, and vandalism that followed ended the splendours of Renaissance Rome forever. Clement VII, who had displayed no more resolution in his military than in his political conduct, was shortly afterwards (6 June) obliged to surrender himself together with the Castel Sant'Angelo, where he had taken refuge. He agreed to pay a ransom of 400,000 ducats in exchange for his life; conditions included the cession of Parma, Piacenza, Civitavecchia, and Modena to the Holy Roman Empire. (Only the last could be occupied in fact.) At the same time, Venice took advantage of his situation to capture Cervia and Ravenna while Sigismondo Malatesta returned to Rimini.
Clement was kept as a prisoner in Castel Sant'Angelo for six months. After having bought off some Imperial officers, he escaped disguised as a peddler and took shelter in Orvieto and then in Viterbo. He came back to a depopulated and devastated Rome only in October 1528.
Meanwhile, in Florence, Republican enemies of the Medici took advantage of the chaos to again expel the Pope's family from the city.
In June 1529 the warring parties signed the
Appearance
During his half-year imprisonment in 1527, Clement VII grew a full beard as a sign of mourning for the sack of Rome. This was in contradiction to Catholic canon law,[51] which required priests to be clean-shaven but had as precedent the beard Pope Julius II wore for nine months in 1511–12 as a sign of mourning for the papal city of Bologna.
Unlike Julius II, however, Clement kept his beard until his death in 1534. His example in wearing a beard was followed by his successor,
Ancona
In 1532, Clement VII took possession of Ancona, which definitively lost its freedom and became part of the Papal States, ending hundreds of years when the Republic of Ancona was an important maritime power.
English Reformation
By the late 1520s, King Henry VIII wanted to have his marriage to Charles's aunt Catherine of Aragon annulled. The couple's sons died in infancy, threatening the future of the House of Tudor, although Henry did have a daughter, Mary Tudor. Henry claimed that this lack of a male heir was because his marriage was "blighted in the eyes of God".[52] Catherine had been his brother's widow, but the marriage had been childless, so the marriage was not against Old Testament law, which forbids such unions only if the brother had children.[53] Moreover, Pope Julius II had given a dispensation to allow the wedding.[54] Henry now argued that this had been wrong and that his marriage had never been valid. In 1527 Henry asked Clement to annul the marriage, but the Pope, possibly acting under pressure from Catherine's nephew, Holy Roman Emperor Charles V, whose effective prisoner he was, refused. According to Catholic teaching, a validly contracted marriage is indivisible until death, and thus the pope cannot annul a marriage on the basis of an impediment previously dispensed.[55] Many people close to Henry wished simply to ignore Clement, but in October 1530 a meeting of clergy and lawyers advised that the Parliament of England could not empower the Archbishop of Canterbury to act against the Pope's prohibition. In Parliament, Bishop John Fisher was the Pope's champion.
Henry subsequently underwent a marriage ceremony with
Consequently, in England, in the same year, the
Marriage of Catherine de' Medici
In 1533, Clement married his cousin's granddaughter,
According to Medici historian Paul Strathern, Clement marrying Catherine into France's royal family and Alessandro becoming Duke of Florence and marrying into the Hapsburg family "marked perhaps the most significant turning point in the history of the Medici family—the ascent into nobility in Florence, and the joining of the French royal family. Without the guiding hand of Clement VII, the Medici would never have been able to achieve the pinnacles of greatness that were yet to come" in the following centuries.[35]
Death
On 10 December 1533, Clement returned to Rome with a fever and complaining of stomach problems. Strathern writes of how he had been ill for months: "[he] was aging rapidly...his liver was failing and his skin turned yellow; he also lost the sight of one eye and became partially blind in the other."[35] He was so ill at the beginning of August 1534 that Cardinal Agostino Trivulzio wrote to King Francis that the Pope's doctors feared for his life.[63]
Later the following year, on 23 September 1534, Clement wrote a long letter of farewell to Emperor Charles.
Clement's biographer
Clement's symptoms and the length of his illness do not, however, support the hypothesis that he had been poisoned.[clarification needed][citation needed]
Legacy
Political legacy
Clement VII's papacy is generally regarded as one of history's most tumultuous; opinions of Clement himself are often nuanced.[70] For example, Clement's contemporary Francesco Vettori writes that he "endured a great labor to become, from a great and respected cardinal, a small and little-esteemed pope", but also that "if one considers the lives of previous popes one may truly say that, for more than a hundred years, no better man than Clement VII sat upon the Throne. Nevertheless, it was in his day that the disaster took place while these others, who were filled with all vices, lived and died in felicity—as the world sees it. Neither should we seek to question the Lord, our God, who will punish—or not punish–in what manner and in what time it pleases him."[71]
The disasters of Clement's pontificate—the Sack of Rome and the English Reformation—are regarded as turning points in the histories of Catholicism, Europe, and the Renaissance.[72] Modern historian Kenneth Gouwens writes, "Clement's failures must be viewed above all in the context of major changes in the dynamics of European politics. As warfare on the Italian peninsula intensified in the mid-1520s, the imperative of autonomy [for the Catholic Church and Italy] required enormous financial outlays to field standing armies. Political survival perforce eclipsed ecclesiastical reform as a short-term goal, and the costs of war necessitated the curtailment of expenditure on culture. Clement pursued policies consistent with those of his illustrious predecessors Julius II and Leo X; but in the 1520s, those policies could but fail.... Reform of the Church, to which his successors would turn, required resources and concerted secular support that the second Medici pope was unable to muster."[73]
Regarding Clement's struggle to liberate Italy and the Catholic Church from foreign domination, historian Fred Dotolo writes that "one might see in his papacy a vigorous defense of papal rights against the growth of monarchial power, a diplomatic and even pastoral struggle to retain the ancient division within Christendom of the priestly and kingly offices. Should the new monarchs of the early modern period reduce the papacy to a mere appendage of secular authority, religious issues would become little more than state policy.... Clement VII attempted to restrain the expansion of royal power and maintain the independence of Rome and of papal prerogatives."[74]
Ecclesiastically, Clement is remembered for orders protecting
In a final analysis of Clement's papacy, historian E.R. Chamberlin writes, "in all but his personal attributes, Clement VII was a protagonist in a Greek tragedy, the victim called upon to endure the results of actions committed long before. Each temporal claim of his predecessors had entangled the Papacy just a little more in the lethal game of politics, even while each moral debasement divorced it just a little more from the vast body of Christians from whom ultimately it drew its strength."[81] More charitably, modern historian James Grubb writes, "indeed, at a certain point it is difficult to see how he might have fared much better, given the obstacles he faced. Certainly his predecessors since the end of the Schism had experienced their share of opposition, but did any have to fight on so many fronts as Clement, and against such overwhelming odds? At one time or another he battled the Holy Roman Empire (now fueled by precious metals from America), the French, the Turks, rival Italian powers, fractious forces within the papal states, and entrenched interests within the Curia itself. That the precious liberta d'Italia (freedom from outside domination) should have been lost irrevocably seems more an inevitability than a product of Clement's particular failings. He tried his utmost...."[82]
Portrayals
The life of the second Medici pope has been portrayed numerous times in films and television, notably the Netflix series Medici: The Magnificent, where the figure is portrayed by British actor Jacob Dudman.
Patronage
As both a cardinal and Pope, Giulio de' Medici "commissioned or supervised many of the best-known artistic undertakings of the cinquecento."[83] Of those works, he's best known for Michelangelo's monumental fresco in the Sistine Chapel, The Last Judgment; Raphael's iconic altarpiece The Transfiguration; Michelangelo's sculptures for the Medici Chapel in Florence; Raphael's architectural Villa Madama in Rome; and Michelangelo's innovative Laurentian Library in Florence.[84][85][86][87] "As a patron, [Giulio de' Medici] proved extraordinarily confident in technical affairs," which allowed him to suggest workable architectural and artistic solutions for commissions ranging from Michelangelo's Laurentian Library to Benvenuto Cellini's celebrated Papal Morse.[88][12][89] As Pope, he appointed goldsmith Cellini head of the Papal Mint; and painter Sebastiano del Piombo keeper of the Papal Seal.[90][91] Sebastiano's tour de force, The Raising of Lazarus, was produced via a contest arranged by Cardinal Giulio, pitting Sebastiano in direct competition with Raphael over who could produce the better altarpiece for the Narbonne Cathedral.[91][92]
Giulio de' Medici's patronage extended to theology, literature, and science. Some of the best known works associated with him are
Giulio de' Medici was a talented musician, and his circle included many well-known artists and thinkers of the Italian
The Clementine Style
Italian Renaissance artistic trends from 1523 to 1527 are sometimes called the "Clementine style", and notable for their technical virtuosity.[101] In 1527, the Sack of Rome "put a brutal end to an artistic golden age, the Clementine style that had developed in Rome since the coronation of the Medici Pope".[102] André Chastel describes the artists who worked in the Clementine style as Parmigianino, Rosso Fiorentino, Sebastiano del Piombo, Benvenuto Cellini, Marcantonio Raimondi, and numerous associates of Raphael: Giulio Romano, Giovanni da Udine; Perino del Vaga; and Polidoro da Caravaggio.[103] During the Sack, several of these artists were either killed, made prisoner, or took part in the fighting.[103]
Character
Clement was renowned for his intelligence and counsel, but maligned for his inability to take timely and decisive action. Historian G.F. Young writes, "he spoke with equal knowledge of his subject whether that were philosophy and theology, or mechanics and hydraulic architecture. In all affairs he displayed an extraordinary acuteness; the most perplexing questions were unravelled, the most difficult circumstances penetrated to the very bottom, by his extreme sagacity. No man could debate a point with more address."
Of Clement's limitations, historian Francesco Guicciardini writes, "although he had a most capable intelligence and marvelous knowledge of world affairs, he lacked the corresponding resolution and execution.... He remained almost always in suspension and ambiguous when he was faced with deciding those things that from afar he had many times foreseen, considered, and almost revealed."[105] Strathern writes that Clement was "a man of almost icy self-control, but in him the Medici trait of self-contained caution had deepened into a flaw.... If anything, Clement VII had too much understanding—he could always see both sides of any particular argument. This had made him an excellent close adviser to his cousin Leo X, but hampered his ability to take matters into his own hands."[35] The Catholic Encyclopedia notes that while his "private life was free from reproach and he had many excellent impulses ... despite good intention, all qualities of heroism and greatness must emphatically be denied him."[106]
See also
- Republic of Florence
- Italian Wars
- Medici family
- List of popes from the Medici family
- Cardinals created by Clement VII
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- ISBN 978-1409425588. Retrieved 29 September 2017.
- ^ "Sack of Rome (1527): the Triumph of Mannerism in Europe". Encyclopédie d’histoire numérique de l’Europe.
- ^ ISBN 978-0691099477.
- ISBN 0898754127.
- ISBN 0691008000.
- ^ "Catholic Enyclopedia: Pope Clement VII".
- ^ Medici does not appear as Bishop either in F. Ughelli, Italia sacra II (ed. N. Colet) (Venice 1717), p. 37; or in Pius Gams, Series episcoporum (1873), p. 676. Considering the time span, some eight weeks, it is more likely that he was Administrator. On 3 March, the day that Medici resigned, Cardinal Grassis (who had been Bishop of Bologna) was named Administrator of Bologna.
- ^ on 2 December 1523: Gulik-Eubel, p. 136.
Sources
- Hersey, George L. (1993). High Renaissance Art in St. Peter's and the Vatican: An Interpretive Guide. The University of Chicago Press.
- Reynolds, Anne (2016). "The Papal Court in Exile: Clement VII in Orvieto, 1527–28". In Gouwens, Kenneth; Reiss, Sheryl E. (eds.). The Pontificate of Clement VII: History, Politics, Culture. Ashgate Publishing. pp. 143–164.
- Visceglia, Maria Antonietta (2006). "A comparative historiographic reflection on sovereignty in early modern Europe: interregnum rites and papal funerals". In Schilling, Heinz; Tóth, István György (eds.). Cultural Exchange in Early Modern Europe. Cambridge University Press. pp. 162–190.
Further reading
- Cellini, Benvenuto (1902). John Addington Symonds, tr. (ed.). The Life of Benvenuto Cellini (fifth ed.). New York: Charles Scribner's Sons.
- Gar, Tommaso (1846). Eugenio Alberi (ed.). Le relazioni degli ambasciatori veneti al Senato (in Italian). Vol. Series 2, Volume III, Secolo XVI, Vol. 1. Firenze: Società editrice fiorentina.
- Roscoe, William (1846). Thomas Roscoe (ed.). The life and pontificate of Leo the tenth. Vol. I (4th ed.). London: Henry G. Bohn.
- Roscoe, William (1900). Thomas Roscoe (ed.). The Life and Pontificate of Leo the Tenth. Vol. II (reprint of 4th edition (1846) ed.). G. Bell & sons.
- De Leva, Giuseppe (1866). Storia documentata di Carlo V in correlazione all'Italia. Vol. II. Venezia: Naratovich.
- Creighton, Mandell (1894). A History of the Papacy, during the period of the Reformation: The German revolt, 1517–1527. Vol. V. London: Longmans, Green, and Company.
- Artaud de Montor, Alexis (1911). The Lives and Times of the Popes. Vol. V. New York: The Catholic Publication Society of America.
- Wilkie, William E. (26 July 1974). The Cardinal Protectors of England: Rome and the Tudors Before the Reformation. Vol. 44. New York and London: Cambridge University Press. pp. 257–258. )
- Rodocanachi, Emmanuel. Histoire de Rome. Les pontificats d'Adrien VI et de Clément VII. Paris : Hachette, 1933.
- Chastel, André (1983). The Sack of Rome, 1527. Princeton: Princeton U.P. ISBN 978-0-691-09947-7.
- Hook, Judith (2004). The Sack of Rome: 1527 (2nd ed.). New York: Palgrave Macmillan UK. ISBN 978-1-4039-1769-0.
- Gouwens, Kenneth; Sheryl E. Reiss (2005). The Pontificate of Clement VII: History, Politics, Culture. Aldershot UK; Burlington VT USA: Ashgate. ISBN 978-0-7546-0680-2.
- Wallace, William E. (2005). Clement VII and Michelangelo: An Anatomy of Patronage. Aldershot UK: Ashgate.
External links
- Thurston, Herbert (1908). Catholic Encyclopedia. Vol. 4. .
- Phillips, Walter Alison (1911). . Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 6 (11th ed.). pp. 485–486.
- Catholic Hierarchy, Popes Clement VII
- Cardinals of the Holy Roman Church, Cardinal Medici
- His son Alessandro de Medici
- Paradoxplace Medici Popes' Page
- Adriano Prosperi, "Clemente VII," Enciclopedia dei Papi (2000) [in Italian]
- Pope Clement VII in Catholic Encyclopedia
- Pope Clement VII - a key player in the historical and artistic events of the high renaissance