Cleopatra

Relations between Antony and Cleopatra perhaps soured when he not only married Octavia, but also sired her two children, Antonia the Elder in 39 BC and Antonia Minor in 36 BC, and moved his headquarters to Athens.^[236] However, Cleopatra's position in Egypt was secure.^[214] Her rival Herod was occupied with civil war in Judea that required heavy Roman military assistance, but received none from Cleopatra.^[236] Since the authority of Antony and Octavian as triumvirs had expired on 1 January 37 BC, Octavia arranged for a meeting at Tarentum, where the triumvirate was officially extended to 33 BC.^[237] With two legions granted by Octavian and a thousand soldiers lent by Octavia, Antony traveled to Antioch, where he made preparations for war against the Parthians.^[238]

Antony summoned Cleopatra to Antioch to discuss pressing issues, such as Herod's kingdom and financial support for his Parthian campaign.^[238][239] Cleopatra brought her now three-year-old twins to Antioch, where Antony saw them for the first time and where they probably first received their surnames Helios and Selene as part of Antony and Cleopatra's ambitious plans for the future.^[240][241] In order to stabilize the east, Antony not only enlarged Cleopatra's domain,^[239] he also established new ruling dynasties and client rulers who would be loyal to him, yet would ultimately outlast him.^{[242][220][note 49]}

In this arrangement Cleopatra gained significant former Ptolemaic territories in the Levant, including nearly all of

In 36 BC, Cleopatra accompanied Antony to the Euphrates in his journey toward invading the Parthian Empire.^[251] She then returned to Egypt, perhaps due to her advanced state of pregnancy.^[252] By the summer of 36 BC, she had given birth to Ptolemy Philadelphus, her second son with Antony.^[252][239]

In an event held at the

In a speech to the Roman Senate on the first day of his consulship on 1 January 33 BC, Octavian accused Antony of attempting to subvert Roman freedoms and territorial integrity as a slave to his Oriental queen.^[282] Before Antony and Octavian's joint imperium expired on 31 December 33 BC, Antony declared Caesarion as the true heir of Caesar in an attempt to undermine Octavian.^[282] In 32 BC, the Antonian loyalists Gaius Sosius and Gnaeus Domitius Ahenobarbus became consuls. The former gave a fiery speech condemning Octavian, now a private citizen without public office, and introduced pieces of legislation against him.^[281][283] During the next senatorial session, Octavian entered the Senate house with armed guards and levied his own accusations against the consuls.^[281][284] Intimidated by this act, the consuls and over 200 senators still in support of Antony fled Rome the next day to join the side of Antony.^{[281][284][285]}

Antony and Cleopatra traveled together to Ephesus in 32 BC, where she provided him with 200 of the 800 naval ships he was able to acquire.^[281] Ahenobarbus, wary of having Octavian's propaganda confirmed to the public, attempted to persuade Antony to have Cleopatra excluded from the campaign against Octavian.^[286][287] Publius Canidius Crassus made the counterargument that Cleopatra was funding the war effort and was a competent monarch.^[286][287] Cleopatra refused Antony's requests that she return to Egypt, judging that by blocking Octavian in Greece she could more easily defend Egypt.^[286][287] Cleopatra's insistence that she be involved in the battle for Greece led to the defections of prominent Romans, such as Ahenobarbus and Lucius Munatius Plancus.^[286][284]

During the spring of 32 BC Antony and Cleopatra traveled to Athens, where she persuaded Antony to send Octavia an official declaration of divorce.^{[286][284][270]} This encouraged Plancus to advise Octavian that he should seize Antony's will, invested with the Vestal Virgins.^{[286][284][272]} Although a violation of sacred and legal rights, Octavian forcefully acquired the document from the Temple of Vesta, and it became a useful tool in the propaganda war against Antony and Cleopatra.^[286][272] Octavian highlighted parts of the will, such as Caesarion being named heir to Caesar, that the Donations of Alexandria were legal, that Antony should be buried alongside Cleopatra in Egypt instead of Rome, and that Alexandria would be made the new capital of the Roman Republic.^{[288][284][272]} In a show of loyalty to Rome, Octavian decided to begin construction of his own mausoleum at the Campus Martius.^[284] Octavian's legal standing was also improved by being elected consul in 31 BC.^[284] With Antony's will made public, Octavian had his casus belli, and Rome declared war on Cleopatra,^{[288][289][290]} not Antony.^{[note 55]} The legal argument for war was based less on Cleopatra's territorial acquisitions, with former Roman territories ruled by her children with Antony, and more on the fact that she was providing military support to a private citizen now that Antony's triumviral authority had expired.^[291]

Left: A silver tetradrachm of Cleopatra minted at Seleucia Pieria, Syria

Right: A silver tetradrachm of Cleopatra minted at Ascalon, Israel

Antony and Cleopatra had a larger fleet than Octavian, but the crews of Antony and Cleopatra's navy were not all well-trained, some of them perhaps from merchant vessels, whereas Octavian had a fully professional force.

On 2 September 31 BC the naval forces of Octavian, led by Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa, met those of Antony and Cleopatra at the Battle of Actium.^{[297][293][289]} Cleopatra, aboard her flagship, the Antonias, commanded 60 ships at the mouth of the Ambracian Gulf, at the rear of the fleet, in what was likely a move by Antony's officers to marginalize her during the battle.^[297] Antony had ordered that their ships should have sails on board for a better chance to pursue or flee from the enemy, which Cleopatra, ever concerned about defending Egypt, used to swiftly move through the area of major combat in a strategic withdrawal to the Peloponnese.^{[298][299][300]}

Burstein writes that partisan Roman writers would later accuse Cleopatra of cowardly deserting Antony, but their original intention of keeping their sails on board may have been to break the blockade and salvage as much of their fleet as possible.

Cleopatra perhaps started to view Antony as a liability by the late summer of 31 BC, when she prepared to leave Egypt to her son Caesarion.[310] Cleopatra planned to relinquish her throne to him, take her fleet from the Mediterranean into the Red Sea, and then set sail to a foreign port, perhaps in India, where she could spend time recuperating.^[310][308] However, these plans were ultimately abandoned when Malichus I, as advised by Octavian's governor of Syria, Quintus Didius, managed to burn Cleopatra's fleet in revenge for his losses in a war with Herod that Cleopatra had largely initiated.^[310][308] Cleopatra had no other option but to stay in Egypt and negotiate with Octavian.^[310] Although most likely later pro-Octavian propaganda, it was reported that at this time Cleopatra started testing the strengths of various poisons on prisoners and even her own servants.^[311]

Cleopatra had Caesarion enter into the ranks of the

After lengthy negotiations that ultimately produced no results, Octavian set out to invade Egypt in the spring of 30 BC,[315] stopping at Ptolemais in Phoenicia, where his new ally Herod provided his army with fresh supplies.^[316] Octavian moved south and swiftly took Pelousion, while Cornelius Gallus, marching eastward from Cyrene, defeated Antony's forces near Paraitonion.^[317][318] Octavian advanced quickly to Alexandria, but Antony returned and won a small victory over Octavian's tired troops outside the city's hippodrome.^[317][318] However, on 1 August 30 BC, Antony's naval fleet surrendered to Octavian, followed by Antony's cavalry.^{[317][299][319]}

Cleopatra hid herself in her tomb with her close attendants and sent a message to Antony that she had committed suicide.^{[317][320][321]} In despair, Antony responded to this by stabbing himself in the stomach and taking his own life at age 53.^{[317][299][308]} According to Plutarch, he was still dying when brought to Cleopatra at her tomb, telling her he had died honorably and that she could trust Octavian's companion Gaius Proculeius over anyone else in his entourage.^{[317][322][323]} It was Proculeius, however, who infiltrated her tomb using a ladder and detained the queen, denying her the ability to burn herself with her treasures.^[324][325] Cleopatra was then allowed to embalm and bury Antony within her tomb before she was escorted to the palace.^[324][308]

Octavian entered Alexandria, occupied the palace, and seized Cleopatra's three youngest children.

romanized: ou thriambéusomai), according to Livy, a rare recording of her exact words.^[327][328] Octavian promised that he would keep her alive but offered no explanation about his future plans for her kingdom.^[329] When a spy informed her that Octavian planned to move her and her children to Rome in three days, she prepared for suicide as she had no intentions of being paraded in a Roman triumph like her sister Arsinoe IV.^{[329][299][308]} It is unclear if Cleopatra's suicide on 10 August 30 BC, at age 39, took place within the palace or her tomb.^{[330][331][note 4]} It is said she was accompanied by her servants Eiras and Charmion, who also took their own lives.^[329][332]

Octavian was said to have been angered by this outcome but had Cleopatra buried in royal fashion next to Antony in

asp or Egyptian cobra to bite and poison her.^{[335][336][308]} Plutarch relates this tale, but then suggests an implement (κνῆστις, knêstis, lit. 'spine, cheese-grater') was used to introduce the toxin by scratching, while Dio says that she injected the poison with a needle (βελόνη, belónē), and Strabo argued for an ointment of some kind.^{[337][336][338][note 56]} No venomous snake was found with her body, but she did have tiny puncture wounds on her arm that could have been caused by a needle.^{[335][338][334]}

Cleopatra decided in her last moments to send Caesarion away to Upper Egypt, perhaps with plans to flee to Kushite Nubia, Ethiopia, or India.^{[339][340][318]} Caesarion, now Ptolemy XV, would reign for a mere 18 days until executed on the orders of Octavian on 29 August 30 BC, after returning to Alexandria under the false pretense that Octavian would allow him to be king.^{[341][342][343][note 2]} Octavian was convinced by the advice of the philosopher Arius Didymus that there was room for only one Caesar in the world.^{[344][note 57]} With the fall of the Ptolemaic Kingdom, the Roman province of Egypt was established,^{[345][299][346][note 58]} marking the end of the Hellenistic period.^{[347][348][note 8]} In January of 27 BC Octavian was renamed Augustus ("the revered") and amassed constitutional powers that established him as the first Roman emperor, inaugurating the Principate era of the Roman Empire.^[349]

Cleopatra's kingdom and role as a monarch

obverse is a portrait of Cleopatra wearing a diadem

, and on the reverse an inscription reading "ΒΑΣΙΛΙΣΣΗΣ ΚΛΕΟΠΑΤΡΑΣ" with an eagle standing on a thunderbolt.

Main article: Reign of Cleopatra § Egypt under the monarchy of Cleopatra

Further information: Ptolemaic coinage and Ancient Greek coinage

Following the tradition of

Jews in Egypt, and even built the Caesareum of Alexandria, dedicated to the cult worship of her patron and lover Julius Caesar.^[353][354]

Cleopatra was directly involved in the administrative affairs of her domain,

state monopolies for certain goods, fixed exchange rates for foreign currencies, and rigid laws forcing peasant farmers to stay in their villages during planting and harvesting seasons.^{[358][359][360]} Apparent financial troubles led Cleopatra to debase her coinage, which included silver and bronze currencies but no gold coins like those of some of her distant Ptolemaic predecessors.^[361]

Legacy

Children and successors

Mauretania, from the late 1st century BC, located in the Archaeological Museum of Cherchell, Algeria^{[235][362][363][note 48]}

Right: A likely depiction of Cleopatra Selene II, wearing an elephant skin cap, raised relief image on a gilded silver dish from the Boscoreale Treasure, dated to the early 1st century AD^{[364][365][note 59]}

After her suicide, Cleopatra's three surviving children, Cleopatra Selene II, Alexander Helios, and Ptolemy Philadelphos, were sent to Rome with Octavian's sister

kingdom of Numidia had been turned into a Roman province in 46 BC by Julius Caesar due to Juba I's support of Pompey.^{[368][367][326]}

The emperor Augustus installed Juba II and Cleopatra Selene II, after their wedding in 25 BC, as the new rulers of

Caesarea Mauretaniae (modern Cherchell, Algeria).^[368][241] Cleopatra Selene II imported many important scholars, artists, and advisers from her mother's royal court in Alexandria to serve her in Caesarea, now permeated in Hellenistic Greek culture.^[369] She also named her son Ptolemy of Mauretania, in honor of their Ptolemaic dynastic heritage.^[370][371]

Cleopatra Selene II died c. 5 BC, and when Juba II died in 23/24 AD he was succeeded by his son Ptolemy.[370]^[372] However, Ptolemy was eventually executed by the Roman emperor Caligula in 40 AD, perhaps under the pretense that Ptolemy had unlawfully minted his own royal coinage and utilized regalia reserved for the Roman emperor.^[373][374] Ptolemy of Mauretania was the last known monarch of the Ptolemaic dynasty, although Queen Zenobia, of the short-lived Palmyrene Empire during the Crisis of the Third Century, would claim descent from Cleopatra.^[375][376] A cult dedicated to Cleopatra still existed as late as 373 AD when Petesenufe, an Egyptian scribe of the book of Isis, explained that he "overlaid the figure of Cleopatra with gold."^[377]

Roman literature and historiography

Further information:

Greek historiography, Latin literature, and Latin poetry

Although almost 50 ancient works of Roman historiography mention Cleopatra, these often include only terse accounts of the Battle of Actium, her suicide, and Augustan propaganda about her personal deficiencies.^[379] Despite not being a biography of Cleopatra, the Life of Antonius written by Plutarch in the 1st century AD provides the most thorough surviving account of Cleopatra's life.^{[380][381][382]} Plutarch lived a century after Cleopatra but relied on primary sources, such as Philotas of Amphissa, who had access to the Ptolemaic royal palace, Cleopatra's personal physician named Olympos, and Quintus Dellius, a close confidant of Mark Antony and Cleopatra.^[383] Plutarch's work included both the Augustan view of Cleopatra—which became canonical for his period—as well as sources outside of this tradition, such as eyewitness reports.^[380][382]

The Jewish Roman historian Josephus, writing in the 1st century AD, provides valuable information on the life of Cleopatra via her diplomatic relationship with Herod the Great.^[384][385] However, this work relies largely on Herod's memoirs and the biased account of Nicolaus of Damascus, the tutor of Cleopatra's children in Alexandria before he moved to Judea to serve as an adviser and chronicler at Herod's court.^[384][385] The Roman History published by the official and historian Cassius Dio in the early 3rd century AD, while failing to fully comprehend the complexities of the late Hellenistic world, nevertheless provides a continuous history of the era of Cleopatra's reign.^[384]

Museo Pio-Clementino^{[1][386][387]}

Cleopatra is barely mentioned in De Bello Alexandrino, the memoirs of an unknown staff officer who served under Caesar.^{[388][389][390][note 60]} The writings of Cicero, who knew her personally, provide an unflattering portrait of Cleopatra.^[388] The Augustan-period authors Virgil, Horace, Propertius, and Ovid perpetuated the negative views of Cleopatra approved by the ruling Roman regime,^[388][391] although Virgil established the idea of Cleopatra as a figure of romance and epic melodrama.^{[392][note 61]} Horace also viewed Cleopatra's suicide as a positive choice,^[393][391] an idea that found acceptance by the Late Middle Ages with Geoffrey Chaucer.^[394][395]

The historians

Egyptian papyrus documents demonstrate Cleopatra's point of view, but this material is very limited in comparison to Roman literary works.^{[388][396][note 63]} The fragmentary Libyka commissioned by Cleopatra's son-in-law Juba II provides a glimpse at a possible body of historiographic material that supported Cleopatra's perspective.^[388]

Cleopatra's gender has perhaps led to her depiction as a minor if not insignificant figure in ancient, medieval, and even modern historiography about ancient Egypt and the Greco-Roman world.^[397] For instance, the historian Ronald Syme asserted that she was of little importance to Caesar and that the propaganda of Octavian magnified her importance to an excessive degree.^[397] Although the common view of Cleopatra was one of a prolific seductress, she had only two known sexual partners, Caesar and Antony, the two most prominent Romans of the time period, who were most likely to ensure the survival of her dynasty.^[398][399] Plutarch described Cleopatra as having had a stronger personality and charming wit than physical beauty.^{[400][17][401][note 64]}

Cultural depictions

Further information: List of cultural depictions of Cleopatra

Depictions in ancient art

Further information: Hellenistic art, Art of ancient Egypt, and Death of Cleopatra § Depictions in art and literature

Statues

Further information: Roman portraiture, Roman sculpture, Esquiline Venus, and Sleeping Ariadne

Hellenistic-Egyptian statue of Venus (Aphrodite) that may be a depiction of Cleopatra,^[403] located in the Capitoline Museums

, Rome

Cleopatra was depicted in various ancient works of art, in the Egyptian as well as Hellenistic-Greek and Roman styles.^[2] Surviving works include statues, busts, reliefs, and minted coins,^[2][378] as well as ancient carved cameos,^[404] such as one depicting Cleopatra and Antony in Hellenistic style, now in the Altes Museum, Berlin.^[1] Contemporary images of Cleopatra were produced both in and outside of Ptolemaic Egypt. For instance, there was once a large gilded bronze statue of Cleopatra inside the Temple of Venus Genetrix in Rome, the first time that a living person had their statue placed next to that of a deity in a Roman temple.^{[3][187][405]} It was erected there by Caesar and remained in the temple at least until the 3rd century AD, its preservation perhaps owing to Caesar's patronage, although Augustus did not remove or destroy artworks in Alexandria depicting Cleopatra.^[406][407]

Museo Pio-Clementino, part of the Vatican Museums.^{[1][386][387]} Plutarch, in his Life of Antonius, said that the public statues of Antony were torn down by Augustus, but those of Cleopatra were preserved following her death thanks to her friend Archibius paying the emperor 2,000 talents to dissuade him from destroying hers.^{[408][377][333]}

Since the 1950s scholars have debated whether or not the

Palazzo dei Conservatori of the Capitoline Museums—is a depiction of Cleopatra, based on the statue's hairstyle and facial features, apparent royal diadem worn over the head, and the uraeus Egyptian cobra wrapped around the base.^{[403][409][410]} Detractors of this theory argue that the face in this statue is thinner than the face on the Berlin portrait and assert that it was unlikely she would be depicted as the naked goddess Venus (or the Greek Aphrodite).^{[403][409][410]} However, she was depicted in an Egyptian statue as the goddess Isis,^[411] while some of her coinage depicts her as Venus-Aphrodite.^[412][413] She also dressed as Aphrodite when meeting Antony at Tarsos.^[208] The Esquiline Venus is generally thought to be a mid-1st-century AD Roman copy of a 1st-century BC Greek original from the school of Pasiteles.^[409]

Coinage portraits

Further information: Ptolemaic coinage, Roman currency, and Ancient Greek coinage

obverse and reverse, respectively, of a silver tetradrachm struck at the Antioch

mint in 36 BC, with Greek legends: BACIΛΙCCA KΛΕΟΠΑΤΡΑ ΘΕΑ ΝΕΩΤΕΡΑ, ANTΩNIOC AYTOKPATΩP TPITON TPIΩN ANΔPΩN.

Surviving coinage of Cleopatra's reign include specimens from every regnal year, from 51 to 30 BC.[414] Cleopatra, the only Ptolemaic queen to issue coins on her own behalf, almost certainly inspired her partner Caesar to become the first living Roman to present his portrait on his own coins.^{[412][note 65]} Cleopatra was the first foreign queen to have her image appear on Roman currency.^[415] Coins dated to the period of her marriage to Antony, which also bear his image, portray the queen as having a very similar aquiline nose and prominent chin as that of her husband.^[3][416] These similar facial features followed an artistic convention that represented the mutually-observed harmony of a royal couple.^[3][2]

Her strong, almost masculine facial features in these particular coins are strikingly different from the smoother, softer, and perhaps idealized

Macedonian Greek ancestors who founded the Ptolemaic dynasty, to familiarize himself to her subjects as a legitimate member of the royal house.^[2]

The inscriptions on the coins are written in Greek, but also in the

Hellenistic culture, and perhaps also a statement to their subjects, however ambiguous to modern scholars, about the superiority of either Antony or Cleopatra over the other.^[2] Diana Kleiner argues that Cleopatra, in one of her coins minted with the dual image of her husband Antony, made herself more masculine-looking than other portraits and more like an acceptable Roman client queen than a Hellenistic ruler.^[417] Cleopatra had actually achieved this masculine look in coinage predating her affair with Antony, such as the coins struck at the Ascalon mint during her brief period of exile to Syria and the Levant, which Joann Fletcher explains as her attempt to appear like her father and as a legitimate successor to a male Ptolemaic ruler.^[117][421]

Various coins, such as a silver

Berenice II in their own coinage.^[3][424] After her visit to Rome in 46–44 BC it became fashionable for Roman women to adopt it as one of their hairstyles, but it was abandoned for a more modest, austere look during the conservative rule of Augustus.^{[3][422][423]}

Greco-Roman busts and heads

An ancient Roman portrait head, c. 50–30 BC, now located in the British Museum, London, that depicts a woman from Ptolemaic Egypt, either Queen Cleopatra or a member of her entourage during her 46–44 BC visit to Rome with her lover Julius Caesar^[422]

Of the surviving Greco-Roman-style busts and heads of Cleopatra,^{[note 67]} the sculpture known as the "Berlin Cleopatra", located in the Antikensammlung Berlin collection at the Altes Museum, possesses her full nose, whereas the head known as the "Vatican Cleopatra", located in the Vatican Museums, is damaged with a missing nose.^{[425][426][427][note 68]} Both the Berlin Cleopatra and Vatican Cleopatra have royal diadems, similar facial features, and perhaps once resembled the face of her bronze statue housed in the Temple of Venus Genetrix.^{[426][428][427][note 69]}

Both heads are dated to the mid-1st century BC and were found in Roman villas along the

Via Appia in Italy, the Vatican Cleopatra having been unearthed in the Villa of the Quintilii.^{[3][425][427][note 70]} Francisco Pina Polo writes that Cleopatra's coinage present her image with certainty and asserts that the sculpted portrait of the Berlin head is confirmed as having a similar profile with her hair pulled back into a bun, a diadem, and a hooked nose.^{[429][note 71]}

A third sculpted portrait of Cleopatra accepted by scholars as being authentic survives at the Archaeological Museum of Cherchell, Algeria.^{[407][362][363]} This portrait features the royal diadem and similar facial features as the Berlin and Vatican heads, but has a more unique hairstyle and may actually depict Cleopatra Selene II, daughter of Cleopatra.^{[363][430][235][note 48]} A possible Parian-marble sculpture of Cleopatra wearing a vulture headdress in Egyptian style is located at the Capitoline Museums.^[431] Discovered near a sanctuary of Isis in Rome and dated to the 1st century BC, it is either Roman or Hellenistic-Egyptian in origin.^[432]

Other possible sculpted depictions of Cleopatra include one in the British Museum, London, made of limestone, which perhaps only depicts a woman in her entourage during her trip to Rome.^[1][422] The woman in this portrait has facial features similar to others (including the pronounced aquiline nose), but lacks a royal diadem and sports a different hairstyle.^[1][422] However, the British Museum head, once belonging to a full statue, could potentially represent Cleopatra at a different stage in her life and may also betray an effort by Cleopatra to discard the use of royal insignia (i.e. the diadem) to make herself more appealing to the citizens of Republican Rome.^[422] Duane W. Roller speculates that the British Museum head, along with those in the Egyptian Museum, Cairo, the Capitoline Museums, and in the private collection of Maurice Nahmen, while having similar facial features and hairstyles as the Berlin portrait but lacking a royal diadem, most likely represent members of the royal court or even Roman women imitating Cleopatra's popular hairstyle.^[433]

• 

  Cleopatra, mid-1st century BC, with a "melon" hairstyle and

  Hellenistic royal diadem worn over her head, now in the Vatican Museums^[1][3][425]

• 

  Profile view of the Vatican Cleopatra

• 

  Cleopatra, mid-1st century BC, showing Cleopatra with a "melon" hairstyle and

  Hellenistic royal diadem worn over the head, now in the Altes Museum^[1][3][425]

• 

  Profile view of the Berlin Cleopatra

Paintings

A Roman Second Style painting in the House of Marcus Fabius Rufus at Pompeii, Italy, depicting Cleopatra as Venus Genetrix and her son Caesarion as a cupid, mid-1st century BC^[409][434]

In the House of Marcus Fabius Rufus at Pompeii, Italy, a mid-1st century BC Second Style wall painting of the goddess Venus holding a cupid near massive temple doors is most likely a depiction of Cleopatra as Venus Genetrix with her son Caesarion.^[409][434] The commission of the painting most likely coincides with the erection of the Temple of Venus Genetrix in the Forum of Caesar in September 46 BC, where Caesar had a gilded statue erected depicting Cleopatra.^[409][434] This statue likely formed the basis of her depictions in both sculpted art as well as this painting at Pompeii.^[409][435]

The woman in the painting wears a royal diadem over her head and is strikingly similar in appearance to the Vatican Cleopatra, which bears possible marks on the marble of its left cheek where a cupid's arm may have been torn off.^{[409][436][427][note 72]} The room with the painting was walled off by its owner, perhaps in reaction to the execution of Caesarion in 30 BC by order of Octavian, when public depictions of Cleopatra's son would have been unfavorable with the new Roman regime.^[409][437]

Behind her golden diadem, crowned with a red jewel, is a translucent veil with crinkles that suggest the "melon" hairstyle favored by the queen.^{[436][note 73]} Her ivory-white skin, round face, long aquiline nose, and large round eyes were features common in both Roman and Ptolemaic depictions of deities.^[436] Roller affirms that "there seems little doubt that this is a depiction of Cleopatra and Caesarion before the doors of the Temple of Venus in the Forum Julium and, as such, it becomes the only extant contemporary painting of the queen."^[409]

octodrachm minted in 204–203 BC).^[440]

King of Numidia.^[303] Arguments in favor of it depicting Cleopatra include the strong connection of her house with that of the Numidian royal family, Masinissa and Ptolemy VIII Physcon having been associates, and Cleopatra's own daughter marrying the Numidian prince Juba II.^[303]

Sophonisba was also a more obscure figure when the painting was made, while Cleopatra's suicide was far more famous.[303] An asp is absent from the painting, but many Romans held the view that she received poison in another manner than a venomous snakebite.^[441] A set of double doors on the rear wall of the painting, positioned very high above the people in it, suggests the described layout of Cleopatra's tomb in Alexandria.^[303] A male servant holds the mouth of an artificial Egyptian crocodile (possibly an elaborate tray handle), while another man standing by is dressed as a Roman.^[303]

In 1818 a now lost

radiant crown of the Ptolemaic rulers, as seen in their portraits on various coins minted during their respective reigns.^[440] After Cleopatra's suicide, Octavian commissioned a painting to be made depicting her being bitten by a snake, parading this image in her stead during his triumphal procession in Rome.^{[442][339][315]} The portrait painting of Cleopatra's death was perhaps among the great number of artworks and treasures taken from Rome by Emperor Hadrian to decorate his private villa, where it was found in an Egyptian temple.^{[438][note 75]}

An ancient Roman fresco in the Pompeian Third Style possibly depicting Cleopatra, from the House of the Orchard at Pompeii, Italy, mid-1st century AD^[49]

A Roman panel painting from Herculaneum, Italy, dated to the 1st century AD possibly depicts Cleopatra.^[49][50] In it she wears a royal diadem, red or reddish-brown hair pulled back into a bun,^{[note 76]} pearl-studded hairpins,^[444] and earrings with ball-shaped pendants, the white skin of her face and neck set against a stark black background.^[49] Her hair and facial features are similar to those in the sculpted Berlin and Vatican portraits as well as her coinage.^[49] A highly similar painted bust of a woman with a blue headband in the House of the Orchard at Pompeii features Egyptian-style imagery, such as a Greek-style sphinx, and may have been created by the same artist.^[49]

Portland Vase

Further information: Portland Vase

The Portland Vase, a Roman cameo glass vase dated to the Augustan period and now in the British Museum, includes a possible depiction of Cleopatra with Antony.^[445][447] In this interpretation, Cleopatra can be seen grasping Antony and drawing him toward her while a serpent (i.e. the asp) rises between her legs, Eros floats above, and Anton, the alleged ancestor of the Antonian family, looks on in despair as his descendant Antony is led to his doom.^[445][446] The other side of the vase perhaps contains a scene of Octavia, abandoned by her husband Antony but watched over by her brother, the emperor Augustus.^[445][446] The vase would thus have been created no earlier than 35 BC, when Antony sent his wife Octavia back to Italy and stayed with Cleopatra in Alexandria.^[445]

Native Egyptian art

Further information: Portraiture in ancient Egypt and Reign of Cleopatra § Egypt under the monarchy of Cleopatra

The Bust of Cleopatra in the Royal Ontario Museum represents a bust of Cleopatra in the Egyptian style.^[448] Dated to the mid-1st century BC, it is perhaps the earliest depiction of Cleopatra as both a goddess and ruling pharaoh of Egypt.^[448] The sculpture also has pronounced eyes that share similarities with Roman copies of Ptolemaic sculpted works of art.^[449] The Dendera Temple complex, near Dendera, Egypt, contains Egyptian-style carved relief images along the exterior walls of the Temple of Hathor depicting Cleopatra and her young son Caesarion as a grown adult and ruling pharaoh making offerings to the gods.^[450][451] Augustus had his name inscribed there following the death of Cleopatra.^[450][452]

A large Ptolemaic black

Ptolemy II, but recent analysis has indicated that it could depict her descendant Cleopatra due to the three uraei adorning her headdress, an increase from the two used by Arsinoe II to symbolize her rule over Lower and Upper Egypt.^{[408][404][402]} The woman in the basalt statue also holds a divided, double cornucopia (dikeras), which can be seen on coins of both Arsinoe II and Cleopatra.^[408][402] In his Kleopatra und die Caesaren (2006), Bernard Andreae [de] contends that this basalt statue, like other idealized Egyptian portraits of the queen, does not contain realistic facial features and hence adds little to the knowledge of her appearance.^{[453][note 77]} Adrian Goldsworthy writes that, despite these representations in the traditional Egyptian style, Cleopatra would have dressed as a native only "perhaps for certain rites" and instead would usually dress as a Greek monarch, which would include the Greek headband seen in her Greco-Roman busts.^[454]

• 

  A granite Egyptian bust of Cleopatra from the Royal Ontario Museum, mid-1st century BC

• 

  A marble statue of Cleopatra with her cartouche inscribed on the upper right arm and wearing a diadem with a triple uraeus, from the Metropolitan Museum of Art^[455]

• 

  Possible sculpted head of Cleopatra VII wearing an Egyptian-style vulture headdress, discovered in Rome, either

  Hellenistic Egyptian art, Parian marble, 1st century BC, from the Capitoline Museums^[431][432]

Medieval and Early Modern reception

Further information:

Early Modern literature

In modern times Cleopatra has become an icon of popular culture,^[378] a reputation shaped by theatrical representations dating back to the Renaissance as well as paintings and films.^[457] This material largely surpasses the scope and size of existent historiographic literature about her from classical antiquity and has made a greater impact on the general public's view of Cleopatra than the latter.^[458] The 14th-century English poet Geoffrey Chaucer, in The Legend of Good Women, contextualized Cleopatra for the Christian world of the Middle Ages.^[459] His depiction of Cleopatra and Antony, her shining knight engaged in courtly love, has been interpreted in modern times as being either playful or misogynistic satire.^[459]

Chaucer highlighted Cleopatra's relationships with only two men as hardly the life of a seductress and wrote his works partly in reaction to the negative depiction of Cleopatra in

Renaissance humanist Bernardino Cacciante [it], in his 1504 Libretto apologetico delle donne, was the first Italian to defend the reputation of Cleopatra and criticize the perceived moralizing and misogyny in Boccaccio's works.^[461] Works of Islamic historiography written in Arabic covered the reign of Cleopatra, such as the 10th-century Meadows of Gold by Al-Masudi,^[462] although his work erroneously claimed that Octavian died soon after Cleopatra's suicide.^[463]

Cleopatra appeared in

Bartolommeo Bandinelli and Alessandro Vittoria.^[464] Early prints depicting Cleopatra include designs by the Renaissance artists Raphael and Michelangelo, as well as 15th-century woodcuts in illustrated editions of Boccaccio's works.^[465]

In the performing arts, the death of

Cleopatra on a similar subject in 1789.^[469]

Modern depictions and brand imaging

Further information:

Egyptomania

In

lithographs, postcards and cigarettes.^[470] Fictional novels such as H. Rider Haggard's Cleopatra (1889) and Théophile Gautier's One of Cleopatra's Nights (1838) depicted the queen as a sensual and mystic Easterner, while the Egyptologist Georg Ebers's Cleopatra (1894) was more grounded in historical accuracy.^[470][471] The French dramatist Victorien Sardou and Irish playwright George Bernard Shaw produced plays about Cleopatra, while burlesque shows such as F. C. Burnand's Antony and Cleopatra offered satirical depictions of the queen connecting her and the environment she lived in with the modern age.^[472]

Shakespeare's Antony and Cleopatra was considered canonical by the Victorian era.[473] Its popularity led to the perception that the 1885 painting by Lawrence Alma-Tadema depicted the meeting of Antony and Cleopatra on her pleasure barge in Tarsus, although Alma-Tadema revealed in a private letter that it depicts a subsequent meeting of theirs in Alexandria.^[474] Also based on Shakespeare's play was Samuel Barber's opera Antony and Cleopatra (1966), commissioned for the opening of the Metropolitan Opera House.^[475] In his unfinished 1825 short story The Egyptian Nights, Alexander Pushkin popularized the claims of the 4th-century Roman historian Aurelius Victor, previously largely ignored, that Cleopatra had prostituted herself to men who paid for sex with their lives.^[476][477] Cleopatra also became appreciated outside the Western world and Middle East, as the Qing-dynasty Chinese scholar Yan Fu wrote an extensive biography of her.^[478]

women's magazines of the early 1960s advertised how to use makeup, clothes, jewelry, and hairstyles to achieve the "Egyptian" look similar to the queens Cleopatra and Nefertiti.^[483] By the end of the 20th century there were forty-three films, two hundred plays and novels, forty-five operas, and five ballets associated with Cleopatra.^[484]

Written works

Further information: Ancient Greek literature and Ancient Egyptian literature

Whereas myths about Cleopatra persist in popular media, important aspects of her career go largely unnoticed, such as her command of naval forces and administrative acts. Publications on ancient Greek medicine attributed to her are, likely to be the work of a physician by the same name writing in the late first century AD.^[485] Ingrid D. Rowland, who highlights that the "Berenice called Cleopatra" cited by the 3rd- or 4th-century female Roman physician Metrodora was likely conflated by medieval scholars as referring to Cleopatra.^[486] Only fragments exist of these medical and cosmetic writings, such as those preserved by Galen, including remedies for hair disease, baldness, and dandruff, along with a list of weights and measures for pharmacological purposes.^{[487][20][488]} Aëtius of Amida attributed a recipe for perfumed soap to Cleopatra, while Paul of Aegina preserved alleged instructions of hers for dyeing and curling hair.^[487]

Ancestry

See also: Cleopatra race controversy

Left: A Hellenistic bust of Ptolemy I Soter, now in the Louvre, Paris

Right: A bust of Seleucus I Nicator, a Roman copy of a Greek original, from the Villa of the Papyri, Herculaneum, and now in the National Archaeological Museum, Naples

Cleopatra V Tryphaena (also known as Cleopatra VI), 1st century BC, from Lower Egypt, now in the Musée Saint-Raymond^[489]

Cleopatra belonged to the

Cleopatra V Tryphaena,^{[note 3]} the sister-wife of Ptolemy XII who had previously given birth to their daughter Berenice IV.^{[14][496][498][note 81]}

Cleopatra I Syra was the only member of the Ptolemaic dynasty known for certain to have introduced some non-Greek ancestry.^[499][500] Her mother Laodice III was a daughter born to King Mithridates II of Pontus, a Persian of the Mithridatic dynasty, and his wife Laodice who had a mixed Greek-Persian heritage.^[501] Cleopatra I Syra's father Antiochus III the Great was a descendant of Queen Apama, the Sogdian Iranian wife of Seleucus I Nicator.^{[499][500][502][note 82]} It is generally believed that the Ptolemies did not intermarry with native Egyptians.^{[41][503][note 83]} Michael Grant asserts that there is only one known Egyptian mistress of a Ptolemy and no known Egyptian wife of a Ptolemy, further arguing that Cleopatra probably did not have any Egyptian ancestry and "would have described herself as Greek."^{[499][note 84]}

Stacy Schiff writes that Cleopatra was a Macedonian Greek with some Persian ancestry, arguing that it was rare for the Ptolemies to have an Egyptian mistress.^{[504][note 85]} Duane W. Roller speculates that Cleopatra could have been the daughter of a theoretical half-Macedonian-Greek, half-Egyptian woman from Memphis in northern Egypt belonging to a family of priests dedicated to Ptah (a hypothesis not generally accepted in scholarship),^{[note 86]} but contends that whatever Cleopatra's ancestry, she valued her Greek Ptolemaic heritage the most.^{[505][note 87]} Ernle Bradford writes that Cleopatra challenged Rome not as an Egyptian woman "but as a civilized Greek."^[506]

Claims that Cleopatra was an

illegitimate child never appeared in Roman propaganda against her.^{[36][507][note 88]} Strabo was the only ancient historian who claimed that Ptolemy XII's children born after Berenice IV, including Cleopatra, were illegitimate.^{[36][507][508]} Cleopatra V (or VI) was expelled from the court of Ptolemy XII in late 69 BC, a few months after the birth of Cleopatra, while Ptolemy XII's three younger children were all born during the absence of his wife.^[42] The high degree of inbreeding among the Ptolemies is also illustrated by Cleopatra's immediate ancestry, of which a reconstruction is shown below.^{[note 89]}

The family tree given below also lists Cleopatra V as a daughter of

Ptolemy IX Lathyros, which would have made her a sister-wife of Ptolemy XII instead.^[509][36] The confused accounts in ancient primary sources have also led scholars to number Ptolemy XII's wife as either Cleopatra V or Cleopatra VI; the latter may have actually been a daughter of Ptolemy XII. Fletcher and John Whitehorne assert that this is a possible indication Cleopatra V had died in 69 BC rather than reappearing as a co-ruler with Berenice IV in 58 BC (during Ptolemy XII's exile in Rome).^[58][510]

Ptolemy V Epiphanes

Cleopatra I Syra

Ptolemy VI Philometor

Cleopatra II

Ptolemy VIII Physcon

Cleopatra III

Ptolemy IX Lathyros

Cleopatra IV

Ptolemy X Alexander I

Berenice III

Cleopatra V Tryphaena

Ptolemy XII Auletes

Cleopatra VII

See also

• List of female hereditary monarchs

Notes

1. Egyptian were used as both spoken and written languages. Her name was pronounced [kleoˈpatra pʰiloˈpato̞r] in the Greek dialect of Egypt (see Koine Greek phonology
   ).

1. ^ For further validation about the Berlin Cleopatra, see Pina Polo (2013, pp. 184–186), Roller (2010, pp. 54, 174–175), Jones (2006, p. 33), and Hölbl (2001, p. 234).
2. ^ ^{a b} Roller (2010, p. 149) and Skeat (1953, pp. 99–100) explain the nominal short-lived reign of Caesarion as lasting 18 days in 30 August BC. However, Duane W. Roller, relaying Theodore Cressy Skeat, affirms that Caesarion's reign "was essentially a fiction created by Egyptian chronographers to close the gap between [Cleopatra's] death and official Roman control of Egypt (under the new pharaoh, Octavian)", citing, for instance, the Stromata by Clement of Alexandria (Roller 2010, pp. 149, 214, footnote 103).
   Plutarch, translated by Jones (2006, p. 187), wrote in vague terms that "Octavian had Caesarion killed later, after Cleopatra's death."
3. ^ ^{a b c} Grant (1972, pp. 3–4, 17), Fletcher (2008, pp. 69, 74, 76), Jones (2006, p. xiii), Preston (2009, p. 22), Schiff (2011, p. 28) and Burstein (2004, p. 11) label the wife of Ptolemy XII Auletes as Cleopatra V Tryphaena, while Dodson & Hilton (2004, pp. 268–269, 273) and Roller (2010, p. 18) call her Cleopatra VI Tryphaena, due to the confusion in primary sources conflating these two figures, who may have been one and the same. As explained by Whitehorne (1994, p. 182), Cleopatra VI may have actually been a daughter of Ptolemy XII who appeared in 58 BC to rule jointly with her alleged sister Berenice IV (while Ptolemy XII was exiled and living in Rome), whereas Ptolemy XII's wife Cleopatra V perhaps died as early as the winter of 69–68 BC, when she disappears from historical records. Roller (2010, pp. 18–19) assumes that Ptolemy XII's wife, who he numbers as Cleopatra VI, was merely absent from the court for a decade after being expelled for an unknown reason, eventually ruling jointly with her daughter Berenice IV. Fletcher (2008, p. 76) explains that the Alexandrians deposed Ptolemy XII and installed "his eldest daughter, Berenike IV, and as co-ruler recalled Cleopatra V Tryphaena from 10 years' exile from the court. Although later historians assumed she must have been another of Auletes' daughters and numbered her 'Cleopatra VI', it seems she was simply the fifth one returning to replace her brother and former husband Auletes."
4. ^ ^{a b} 12 August 30 BC in the later Julian calendar. Skeat (1953, pp. 98–100).
5. ^ Also "Thea Neotera", lit. "the younger goddess"; and "Philopatris", lit. "loving her country"; see Fischer-Bovet (2015)
6. ^ She was also a diplomat, naval commander, linguist, and medical author; see Roller (2010, p. 1) and Bradford (2000, p. 13).
7. ^ Southern (2009, p. 43) writes about Ptolemy I Soter: "The Ptolemaic dynasty, of which Cleopatra was the last representative, was founded at the end of the fourth century BC. The Ptolemies were not of Egyptian extraction, but stemmed from Ptolemy Soter, a Macedonian Greek in the entourage of Alexander the Great."
   For additional sources that describe the Ptolemaic dynasty as "Macedonian Greek", please see Roller (2010, pp. 15–16), Jones (2006, pp. xiii, 3, 279), Kleiner (2005, pp. 9, 19, 106, 183), Jeffreys (1999, p. 488) and Johnson (1999, p. 69). Alternatively, Grant (1972, p. 3) describes them as a "Macedonian, Greek-speaking" dynasty. Other sources such as Burstein (2004, p. 64) and Pfrommer & Towne-Markus (2001, p. 9) describe the Ptolemies as "Greco-Macedonian", or rather Macedonians who possessed a Greek culture, as in Pfrommer & Towne-Markus (2001, pp. 9–11, 20).
8. ^
   Hellenistic Greeks were viewed by contemporary Romans as having declined and diminished in greatness since the age of Classical Greece, an attitude that has continued even into the works of modern historiography. Regarding Hellenistic Egypt, Grant argues, "Cleopatra VII, looking back upon all that her ancestors had done during that time, was not likely to make the same mistake. But she and her contemporaries of the first century BC had another, peculiar, problem of their own. Could the 'Hellenistic Age' (which we ourselves often regard as coming to an end in about her time) still be said to exist at all, could any Greek age, now that the Romans
   were the dominant power? This was a question never far from Cleopatra's mind. But it is quite certain that she considered the Greek epoch to be by no means finished, and intended to do everything in her power to ensure its perpetuation."
9. ^
   Late Egyptian, is why Ancient Greek (i.e. Koine Greek) was used along with Late Egyptian on official court documents such as the Rosetta Stone ("Radio 4 Programmes – A History of the World in 100 Objects, Empire Builders (300 BC – 1 AD), Rosetta Stone". BBC. Archived from the original on 23 May 2010. Retrieved 7 June 2010.).

   As explained by Burstein (2004, pp. 43–54), Ptolemaic Alexandria was considered a polis (city-state) separate from the country of Egypt, with citizenship reserved for Greeks and Ancient Macedonians, but various other ethnic groups resided there, especially the Jews, as well as native Egyptians, Syrians, and Nubians.

   For further validation, see Grant (1972, p. 3).

   For the multiple languages spoken by Cleopatra, see Roller (2010, pp. 46–48) and Burstein (2004, pp. 11–12).

   For further validation about Ancient Greek being the official language of the Ptolemaic dynasty, see Jones (2006
   , p. 3).
10. ^ Tyldesley (2017) offers an alternative rendering of the title Cleopatra VII Thea Philopator as "Cleopatra the Father-Loving Goddess".
11. Ptolemaic period, along with a survey of the various ethnic groups residing there, see Burstein (2004, pp. 43–61).

    For further validation about the founding of Alexandria by Alexander the Great, see Jones (2006, p. 6).

    For further validation of Ptolemaic rulers being crowned at Memphis, see Jeffreys (1999
    , p. 488).
12. ^ For further information, see Grant (1972, pp. 20, 256, footnote 42).
13. Ptolemaic Egypt gradually abandoned the Ancient Macedonian language. For further information and validation see Schiff (2011
    , p. 36).
14. ^ Grant (1972, p. 3) states that Cleopatra could have been born in either late 70 BC or early 69 BC.
15. ^ For further information and validation see Schiff (2011, p. 28), Kleiner (2005, p. 22), Bennett (1997, pp. 60–63), Bianchi (2005), and Meadows (2001, p. 23). For alternate speculation, see Burstein (2004, p. 11) and Roller (2010, pp. 15, 18, 166). For a comparison of arguments about Cleopatra's maternity, see Prose (2022, p. 38).
16. Ptolemy XII or his wife, identical to that of Cleopatra V, Jones (2006, p. 28) states that Ptolemy XII had six children, while Roller (2010
    , p. 16) mentions only five.
17. Berenice II, the style had fallen from fashion for almost two centuries until revived by Cleopatra; yet as both traditionalist and innovator, she wore her version without her predecessor's fine head veil. And whereas they had both been blonde like Alexander, Cleopatra may well have been a redhead, judging from the portrait of a flame-haired woman wearing the royal diadem surrounded by Egyptian motifs
    which has been identified as Cleopatra."
18. ^ For further information and validation, see Grant (1972, pp. 12–13). In 1972, Michael Grant calculated that 6,000 talents, the price of Ptolemy XII's fee for receiving the title "friend and ally of the Roman people" from the triumvirs Pompey and Julius Caesar, would be worth roughly £7 million or US$17 million, roughly the entire annual tax revenue for Ptolemaic Egypt.
19. ^ For political background information on the Roman annexation of Cyprus, a move pushed for in the Roman Senate by Publius Clodius Pulcher, see Grant (1972, pp. 13–14).
20. ^ For further information, see Grant (1972, pp. 15–16).
21. ^ Fletcher (2008, pp. 76–77) expresses little doubt about this: "deposed in late summer 58 BC and fearing for his life, Auletes had fled both his palace and his kingdom, although he was not completely alone. For one Greek source reveals he had been accompanied 'by one of his daughters', and since his eldest Berenice IV, was monarch, and the youngest, Arsinoe, little more than a toddler, it is generally assumed that this must have been his middle daughter and favourite child, eleven-year-old Cleopatra."
22. ^ For further information, see Grant (1972, p. 16).
23. ^ For further information on Roman financier Rabirius, as well as the Gabiniani left in Egypt by Gabinius, see Grant (1972, pp. 18–19).
24. ^ For further information, see Grant (1972, p. 18).
25. ^ For further information, see Grant (1972, pp. 19–20, 27–29).
26. ^ For further information, see Grant (1972, pp. 28–30).
27. ^ For further information, see Fletcher (2008, pp. 88–92) and Jones (2006, pp. 31, 34–35).
    Fletcher (2008, pp. 85–86) states that the partial solar eclipse of 7 March 51 BC marked the death of Ptolemy XII and accession of Cleopatra to the throne, although she apparently suppressed the news of his death, alerting the Roman Senate to this fact months later in a message they received on 30 June 51 BC.
    However, Grant (1972, p. 30) claims that the Senate was informed of his death on 1 August 51 BC. Michael Grant indicates that Ptolemy XII could have been alive as late as May, while an ancient Egyptian source affirms he was still ruling with Cleopatra by 15 July 51 BC, although by this point Cleopatra most likely "hushed up her father's death" so that she could consolidate her control of Egypt.
28. Macedon ... killed Arsinoë's small children in front of her. Now queen without a kingdom, Arsinoë fled to Egypt, where she was welcomed by her full brother Ptolemy II. Not content, however, to spend the rest of her life as a guest at the Ptolemaic court, she had Ptolemy II's wife exiled to Upper Egypt and married him herself around 275 B.C. Though such an incestuous marriage was considered scandalous by the Greeks, it was allowed by Egyptian custom. For that reason, the marriage split public opinion into two factions. The loyal side celebrated the couple as a return of the divine marriage of Zeus and Hera
    , whereas the other side did not refrain from profuse and obscene criticism. One of the most sarcastic commentators, a poet with a very sharp pen, had to flee Alexandria. The unfortunate poet was caught off the shore of Crete by the Ptolemaic navy, put in an iron basket, and drowned. This and similar actions seemingly slowed down vicious criticism."
29. ^ For further information, see Fletcher (2008, pp. 92–93).
30. ^ For further information, see Fletcher (2008, pp. 96–97) and Jones (2006, p. 39).
31. ^ For further information, see Jones (2006, pp. 39–41).
32. ^ ^{a b} For further information, see Fletcher (2008, p. 98) and Jones (2006, pp. 39–43, 53–55).
33. ^ For further information, see Fletcher (2008, pp. 98–100) and Jones (2006, pp. 53–55).
34. ^ For further information, see Burstein (2004, p. 18) and Fletcher (2008, pp. 101–103).
35. ^ ^{a b} For further information, see Fletcher (2008, p. 113).
36. ^ For further information, see Fletcher (2008, p. 118).
37. ^ For further information, see Burstein (2004, p. 76).
38. ^ For further information, see Burstein (2004, pp. xxi, 19) and Fletcher (2008, pp. 118–120).
39. ^ For further information, see Fletcher (2008, pp. 119–120).
    As part of the siege of Alexandria, Burstein (2004, p. 19) states that Caesar's reinforcements came in January, but Roller (2010, p. 63) says that his reinforcements came in March.
40. ^ For further information and validation, see Anderson (2003, p. 39) and Fletcher (2008, p. 120).
41. ^ For further information and validation, see Fletcher (2008, p. 121) and Jones (2006, p. xiv).
    Roller (2010, pp. 64–65) states that at this point (47 BC) Ptolemy XIV was 12 years old, while Burstein (2004, p. 19) claims that he was still only 10 years of age.
42. ^ For further information and validation, see Anderson (2003, p. 39) and Fletcher (2008, pp. 154, 161–162).
43. ^ Roller (2010, p. 70) writes the following about Caesar and his parentage of Caesarion: "The matter of parentage became so tangled in the propaganda war between Antonius and Octavian in the late 30s B.C.—it was essential for one side to prove and the other to reject Caesar's role—that it is impossible today to determine Caesar's actual response. The extant information is almost contradictory: it was said that Caesar denied parentage in his will but acknowledged it privately and allowed the use of the name Caesarion. Caesar's associate C. Oppius even wrote a pamphlet proving that Caesarion was not Caesar's child, and C. Helvius Cinna—the poet who was killed by rioters after Antonius' funeral oration—was prepared in 44 B.C. to introduce legislation to allow Caesar to marry as many wives as he wished for the purpose of having children. Although much of this talk was generated after Caesar's death, it seems that he wished to be as quiet as possible about the child but had to contend with Cleopatra's repeated assertions."
44. ^ For further information and validation, see Jones (2006, pp. xiv, 78).
45. ^ For further information, see Fletcher (2008, pp. 214–215).
46. ^ As explained by Burstein (2004, p. 23), Cleopatra, having read Antony's personality, boldly presented herself to him as the Egyptian goddess Isis (in the appearance of the Greek goddess Aphrodite) meeting her divine husband Osiris (in the form of the Greek god Dionysus), knowing that the priests of the Temple of Artemis at Ephesus had associated Antony with Dionysus shortly before this encounter. According to Brown (2011), a cult surrounding Isis had been spreading across the region for hundreds of years, and Cleopatra, like many of her predecessors, sought to identify herself with Isis and be venerated. In addition, some surviving coins of Cleopatra also depict her as Venus–Aphrodite, as explained by Fletcher (2008, p. 205).
47. ^ For further information about Publius Ventidius Bassus and his victory over Parthian forces at the Battle of Mount Gindarus, see Kennedy (1996, pp. 80–81).
48. ^ ^{a b c} Ferroukhi (2001a, p. 219) provides a detailed discussion about this bust and its ambiguities, noting that it could represent Cleopatra, but that it is more likely her daughter Cleopatra Selene II. Kleiner (2005, pp. 155–156) argues in favor of its depicting Cleopatra rather than her daughter, while Varner (2004, p. 20) mentions only Cleopatra as a possible likeness. Roller (2003, p. 139) observes that it could be either Cleopatra or Cleopatra Selene II, while arguing the same ambiguity applies to the other sculpted head from Cherchel featuring a veil. In regards to the latter head, Ferroukhi (2001b, p. 242) indicates it as a possible portrait of Cleopatra, not Cleoptra Selene II, from the early 1st century AD while also arguing that its masculine features, earrings, and apparent toga (the veil being a component of it) could likely mean it was intended to depict a Numidian nobleman. Fletcher (2008, image plates between pp. 246–247) disagrees about the veiled head, arguing that it was commissioned by Cleopatra Selene II at Iol (Caesarea Mauretaniae) and was meant to depict her mother, Cleopatra.
49. ^ According to Roller (2010, pp. 91–92), these client state rulers installed by Antony included Herod, Amyntas of Galatia, Polemon I of Pontus, and Archelaus of Cappadocia.
50. Octavia Minor provided Antony with 1,200 troops, not 2,000 as stated in Roller (2010, pp. 97–98) and Burstein (2004
    , pp. 27–28).
51. ^ Roller (2010, p. 100) says that it is unclear if Antony and Cleopatra were ever truly married. Burstein (2004, pp. xxii, 29) says that the marriage publicly sealed Antony's alliance with Cleopatra and in defiance of Octavian he would divorce Octavia in 32 BC. Coins of Antony and Cleopatra depict them in the typical manner of a Hellenistic royal couple, as explained by Roller (2010, p. 100).
52. ^ Jones (2006, p. xiv) writes that "Octavian waged a propaganda war against Antony and Cleopatra, stressing Cleopatra's status as a woman and a foreigner who wished to share in Roman power."
53. ^ Stanley M. Burstein, in Burstein (2004, p. 33) provides the name Quintus Cascellius as the recipient of the tax exemption, not the Publius Canidius Crassus provided by Duane W. Roller in Roller (2010, p. 134).
54. ^ Reece (2017, p. 203) notes that "[t]he fragmentary texts of ancient Greek papyri do not often make their way into the modern public arena, but this one has, and with fascinating results, while remaining almost entirely unacknowledged is the remarkable fact that Cleopatra's one-word subscription contains a blatant spelling error: γινέσθωι, with a superfluous iota adscript." This spelling error "has not been noted by the popular media", however, being "simply transliterated [...] including, without comment, the superfluous iota adscript" (p. 208). Even in academic sources, the misspelling was largely unacknowledged or quietly corrected (pp. 206–208, 210).
    Although described as "'normal' orthography" (in contrast with "'correct' orthography") by Peter van Minnen (p. 208), the spelling error is "much rarer and more puzzling" than the sort one would expect from the Greek papyri from Egypt (p. 210)—so rare, in fact, that it occurs only twice in the 70,000 Greek papyri between the 3rd century BC and 8th century AD in the Papyrological Navigator's database. This is especially so when considering it was added to a word "with no etymological or morphological reason for having an iota adscript" (p. 210) and was written by "the well-educated, native Greek-speaking, queen of Egypt" Cleopatra VII (p. 208).
55. ^ As explained by Jones (2006, p. 147), "politically, Octavian had to walk a fine line as he prepared to engage in open hostilities with Antony. He was careful to minimize associations with civil war, as the Roman people had already suffered through many years of civil conflict and Octavian could risk losing support if he declared war on a fellow citizen."
56. ^ For the translated accounts of both Plutarch and Dio, Jones (2006, pp. 194–195) writes that the implement used to puncture Cleopatra's skin was a hairpin.
57. ^ Jones (2006, p. 187), translating Plutarch, quotes Arius Didymus as saying to Octavian that "it is not good to have too many Caesars", which was apparently enough to convince Octavian to have Caesarion killed.
58. governors of Egypt, the first of whom was Gallus. For further information, see Southern (2014, p. 185) and Roller (2010
    , p. 151).
59. ^ Walker (2001, p. 312) writes the following about the raised relief on the gilded silver dish: "Conspicuously mounted on the cornucopia is a gilded crescent moon set on a pine cone. Around it are piled pomegranates and bunches of grapes. Engraved on the horn are images of Helios (the sun), in the form of a youth dressed in a short cloak, with the hairstyle of Alexander the Great, the head surrounded by rays ... The symbols on the cornucopia can indeed be read as references to the Ptolemaic royal house and specifically to Cleopatra Selene, represented in the crescent moon, and to her twin brother, Alexander Helios, whose eventual fate after the conquest of Egypt is unknown. The viper seems to be linked with the pantheress and the intervening symbols of fecundity rather than the suicide of Cleopatra VII. The elephant scalp could refer to Cleopatra Selene's status as ruler, with Juba II, of Mauretania. The visual correspondence with the veiled head from Cherchel encourages this identification, and many of the symbols used on the dish also appear on the coinage of Juba II."
60. ^ Jones (2006, p. 60) offers speculation that the author of De Bello Alexandrino, written in Latin prose sometime between 46 and 43 BC, was a certain Aulus Hirtius, a military officer serving under Caesar.
61. ^ Burstein (2004, p. 30) writes that Virgil, in his Aeneid, described the Battle of Actium against Cleopatra "as a clash of civilizations in which Octavian and the Roman gods preserved Italy from conquest by Cleopatra and the barbaric animal-headed gods of Egypt."
62. ^ For further information and extracts of Strabo's account of Cleopatra in his Geographica see Jones (2006, pp. 28–30).
63. Demotic Egyptian
    language. Overall this is a much smaller body of surviving native texts than those of any other period of Ptolemaic Egypt.
64. ^ For the description of Cleopatra by Plutarch, who claimed that her beauty was not "completely incomparable" but that she had a "captivating" and "stimulating" personality, see Jones (2006, pp. 32–33).
65. ^ Fletcher (2008, p. 205) writes the following: "Cleopatra was the only female Ptolemy to issue coins on her own behalf, some showing her as Venus-Aphrodite. Caesar now followed her example and, taking the same bold step, became the first living Roman to appear on coins, his rather haggard profile accompanied by the title 'Parens Patriae', 'Father of the Fatherland'."
66. ^ For further information, see Raia & Sebesta (2017).
67. ^ There is academic disagreement on whether the following portraits are considered "heads" or "busts". For instance, Raia & Sebesta (2017) exclusively uses the former, while Grout (2017b) prefers the latter.
68. ^ For further information and validation, see Curtius (1933, pp. 182–192), Walker (2008, p. 348), Raia & Sebesta (2017) and Grout (2017b).
69. ^ For further information and validation, see Grout (2017b) and Roller (2010, pp. 174–175).
70. ^ For further information, see Curtius (1933, pp. 182–192), Walker (2008, p. 348) and Raia & Sebesta (2017).
71. ^ Blaise Pascal remarked in his Pensées (1670): "Cleopatra's nose: had it been shorter, the whole aspect of the world would have been altered." (Pascal 1910, sec. II, no. 162) According to (Perry & Williams 2019), a less aquiline nose would have diminished her chances of becoming ruler of Egypt and attract men of the First and Second Triumvirate, which would have changed the Battle of Actium, and subsequent European history.
72. ^ The observation that the left cheek of the Vatican Cleopatra once had a cupid's hand that was broken off was first suggested by Ludwig Curtius in 1933. Kleiner concurs with this assessment. See Kleiner (2005, p. 153), as well as Walker (2008, p. 40) and Curtius (1933, pp. 182–192). While Kleiner (2005, p. 153) has suggested the lump on top of this marble head perhaps contained a broken-off uraeus, Curtius (1933, p. 187) offered the explanation that it once held a sculpted representation of a jewel.
73. ^ Curtius (1933, p. 187) wrote that the damaged lump along the hairline and diadem of the Vatican Cleopatra likely contained a sculpted representation of a jewel, which Walker (2008, p. 40) directly compares to the painted red jewel in the diadem worn by Venus, most likely Cleopatra, in the fresco from Pompeii.
74. ^ For further information about the painting in the House of Giuseppe II (Joseph II) at Pompeii and the possible identification of Cleopatra as one of the figures, see Pucci (2011, pp. 206–207, footnote 27).
75. ^ In Pratt & Fizel (1949, pp. 14–15), Frances Pratt and Becca Fizel rejected the idea proposed by some scholars in the 19th and early 20th centuries that the painting was perhaps done by an artist of the Italian Renaissance. Pratt and Fizel highlighted the Classical style of the painting as preserved in textual descriptions and the steel engraving. They argued that it was unlikely for a Renaissance period painter to have created works with encaustic materials, conducted thorough research into Hellenistic period Egyptian clothing and jewelry as depicted in the painting, and then precariously placed it in the ruins of the Egyptian temple at Hadrian's Villa.
76. ^ Walker & Higgs (2001, pp. 314–315) describe her hair as reddish brown, while Fletcher (2008, p. 87) describes her as a flame-haired redhead and, in Fletcher (2008, image plates and captions between pp. 246–247), likewise describes her as a red-haired woman.
77. ^ Preston (2009, p. 305) comes to a similar conclusion about native Egyptian depictions of Cleopatra: "Apart from certain temple carvings, which are anyway in a highly stylised pharaonic style and give little clue to Cleopatra's real appearance, the only certain representations of Cleopatra are those on coins. The marble head in the Vatican is one of three sculptures generally, though not universally, accepted by scholars to be depictions of Cleopatra."
78. ^ For further information on Cleopatra's Macedonian Greek lineage, see Pucci (2011, p. 201), Grant (1972, pp. 3–5), Burstein (2004, pp. 3, 34, 36, 43, 63–64) and Royster (2003, pp. 47–49).
79. ^ For further information and validation of the foundation of Hellenistic Egypt by Alexander the Great and Cleopatra's ancestry stretching back to Ptolemy I Soter, see Grant (1972, pp. 7–8) and Jones (2006, p. 3).
80. ^ For further information, see Grant (1972, pp. 3–4) and Burstein (2004, p. 11).
81. Cleopatra V Tryphaena
    as a possible cousin or sister of Ptolemy XII Auletes.
82. ^ For the Sogdian ancestry of Apama, wife of Seleucus I Nicator, see Holt (1989, pp. 64–65, footnote 63).
83. ^ As explained by Burstein (2004, pp. 47–50), the main ethnic groups of Ptolemaic Egypt were Egyptians, Greeks, and Jews, each of whom were legally segregated, living in different residential quarters and forbidden to intermarry with one another in the multicultural cities of Alexandria, Naucratis, and Ptolemais Hermiou. It had been speculated in some circles that Pasherienptah III, the High Priest of Ptah at Memphis, Egypt, was Cleopatra's half-cousin, speculation which has been recently refuted by Cheshire (2011, pp. 20–30).
84. ^ Grant (1972, p. 5) argues that Cleopatra's grandmother, i.e. the mother of Ptolemy XII, might have been a Syrian (though conceding that "it is possible she was also partly Greek"), but almost certainly not an Egyptian because there is only one known Egyptian mistress of a Ptolemaic ruler throughout their entire dynasty.
85. ^ Schiff (2011, p. 42) further argues that, considering Cleopatra's ancestry, she was not dark-skinned, though notes Cleopatra was likely not among the Ptolemies with fair features, and instead would have been honey-skinned, citing as evidence that her relatives were described as such and it "would have presumably applied to her as well." Goldsworthy (2010, pp. 127, 128) agrees to this, contending that Cleopatra, having Macedonian blood with a little Syrian, was probably not dark-skinned (as Roman propaganda never mentions it), writing "fairer skin is marginally more likely considering her ancestry," though also notes she could have had a "darker more Mediterranean complexion" because of her mixed ancestry. Grant (1972, p. 5) agrees to Goldsworthy's latter speculation of her skin color, that though almost certainly not Egyptian, Cleopatra had a darker complexion due to being Greek mixed with Persian and possible Syrian ancestry. Preston (2009, p. 77) agrees with Grant that, considering this ancestry, Cleopatra was "almost certainly dark-haired and olive-skinned." Bradford (2000, p. 14) contends that it is "reasonable to infer" Cleopatra had dark hair and "pale olive skin."
86. Ptolemy VIII. However, this speculation was refuted by Egyptologist Wendy Cheshire, which was later validated by papyrologist Sandra Lippert. See Cheshire (2011, pp. 20–30) and Lippert (2013
    , pp. 33–48).
87. ^ Schiff (2011, pp. 2) concurs with this, concluding that Cleopatra "upheld the family tradition." As noted by Dudley (1960, pp. 57), Cleopatra and her family were "the successor[s] to the native Pharaohs, exploiting through a highly organized bureaucracy the great natural resources of the Nile Valley."
88. ^ Grant (1972, p. 4) argues that if Cleopatra had been illegitimate, her "numerous Roman enemies would have revealed this to the world."
89. ^ The family tree and short discussions of the individuals can be found in Dodson & Hilton (2004, pp. 268–281). Aidan Dodson and Dyan Hilton refer to Cleopatra V as Cleopatra VI and Cleopatra Selene of Syria is called Cleopatra V Selene. Dotted lines in the chart below indicate possible but disputed parentage.

References

1. ^ ^{a b c d e f g h} Raia & Sebesta (2017).
2. ^ ^{a b c d e f g h i} Sabino & Gross-Diaz (2016).
3. ^ ^{a b c d e f g h i j} Grout (2017b).
4. ^ Burstein (2004), pp. xx–xxiii, 155.
5. ^ HarperCollins.
6. ^ Cordry (1998), p. 44.
7. ^ Royster (2003), p. 48.
8. ^ ^{a b} Muellner.
9. ^ ^{a b c} Roller (2010), pp. 15–16.
10. ^ Roller (2010), pp. 15–16, 39.
11. ^ Fletcher (2008), pp. 55–57.
12. ^ Burstein (2004), p. 15.
13. ^ Fletcher (2008), pp. 84, 215.
14. ^ ^{a b} Roller (2010), p. 18.
15. ^ Roller (2010), pp. 32–33.
16. ^ Fletcher (2008), pp. 1, 3, 11, 129.
17. ^ ^{a b} Burstein (2004), p. 11.
18. ^ Roller (2010), pp. 29–33.
19. ^ Fletcher (2008), pp. 1, 5, 13–14, 88, 105–106.
20. ^ ^{a b c d} Burstein (2004), pp. 11–12.
21. ^ Schiff (2011), p. 35.
22. ^ ^{a b} Roller (2010), pp. 46–48.
23. ^ Fletcher (2008), pp. 5, 82, 88, 105–106.
24. ^ Roller (2010), pp. 46–48, 100.
25. ^ Roller (2010), pp. 38–42.
26. ^ Burstein (2004), pp. xviii, 10.
27. ^ Grant (1972), pp. 9–12.
28. ^ ^{a b c d e} Roller (2010), p. 17.
29. ^ ^{a b} Grant (1972), pp. 10–11.
30. ^ ^{a b} Burstein (2004), p. xix.
31. ^ Grant (1972), p. 11.
32. ^ Burstein (2004), p. 12.
33. ^ Fletcher (2008), p. 74.
34. ^ Grant (1972), p. 3.
35. ^ Roller (2010), p. 15.
36. ^ ^{a b c d} Grant (1972), p. 4.
37. ^ Preston (2009), p. 22.
38. ^ Jones (2006), pp. xiii, 28.
39. ^ ^{a b} Roller (2010), p. 16.
40. ^ ^{a b} Anderson (2003), p. 38.
41. ^ ^{a b c} Fletcher (2008), p. 73.
42. ^ ^{a b} Roller (2010), pp. 18–19.
43. ^ Fletcher (2008), pp. 68–69.
44. ^ Roller (2010), p. 19.
45. ^ Fletcher (2008), p. 69.
46. ^ Roller (2010), pp. 45–46.
47. ^ Roller (2010), p. 45.
48. ^ Fletcher (2008), p. 81.
49. ^ ^{a b c d e f} Walker & Higgs (2001), pp. 314–315.
50. ^ ^{a b} Fletcher (2008), p. 87, image plates and captions between pp. 246–247.
51. ^ Roller (2010), p. 20.
52. ^ Burstein (2004), pp. xix, 12–13.
53. ^ Roller (2010), pp. 20–21.
54. ^ Burstein (2004), pp. xx, 12–13.
55. ^ Fletcher (2008), pp. 74–76.
56. ^ Roller (2010), p. 21.
57. ^ ^{a b} Burstein (2004), p. 13.
58. ^ ^{a b c} Fletcher (2008), p. 76.
59. ^ ^{a b c d} Roller (2010), p. 22.
60. ^ ^{a b} Burstein (2004), pp. xx, 13, 75.
61. ^ Burstein (2004), pp. 13, 75.
62. ^ Grant (1972), pp. 14–15.
63. ^ ^{a b} Fletcher (2008), pp. 76–77.
64. ^ Roller (2010), p. 23.
65. ^ Fletcher (2008), pp. 77–78.
66. ^ Roller (2010), pp. 23–24.
67. ^ Fletcher (2008), p. 78.
68. ^ Grant (1972), p. 16.
69. ^ ^{a b c} Roller (2010), p. 24.
70. ^ Burstein (2004), pp. xx, 13.
71. ^ Grant (1972), pp. 16–17.
72. ^ Burstein (2004), pp. 13, 76.
73. ^ Carey (n.d.).
74. ^ ^{a b} Roller (2010), pp. 24–25.
75. ^ Burstein (2004), p. 76.
76. ^ Burstein (2004), pp. 23, 73.
77. ^ ^{a b} Roller (2010), p. 25.
78. ^ ^{a b} Grant (1972), p. 18.
79. ^ ^{a b} Burstein (2004), p. xx.
80. ^ ^{a b} Roller (2010), pp. 25–26.
81. ^ Burstein (2004), pp. 13–14, 76.
82. ^ ^{a b} Fletcher (2008), pp. 11–12.
83. ^ Burstein (2004), pp. 13–14.
84. ^ Fletcher (2008), pp. 11–12, 80.
85. ^ ^{a b} Roller (2010), p. 26.
86. ^ ^{a b} Burstein (2004), p. 14.
87. ^ Roller (2010), pp. 26–27.
88. ^ Fletcher (2008), pp. 80, 85.
89. ^ Roller (2010), p. 27.
90. ^ Burstein (2004), pp. xx, 14.
91. ^ Fletcher (2008), pp. 84–85.
92. ^ ^{a b c} Hölbl (2001), p. 231.
93. ^ Roller (2010), pp. 53, 56.
94. ^ Burstein (2004), pp. xx, 15–16.
95. ^ Roller (2010), pp. 53–54.
96. ^ ^{a b} Burstein (2004), pp. 16–17.
97. ^ ^{a b} Roller (2010), p. 53.
98. ^ ^{a b} Roller (2010), pp. 54–56.
99. ^ ^{a b c} Burstein (2004), p. 16.
100. ^ ^{a b} Roller (2010), p. 56.
101. ^ Fletcher (2008), pp. 91–92.
102. ^ ^{a b c} Roller (2010), pp. 36–37.
103. ^ ^{a b c} Burstein (2004), p. 5.
104. ^ ^{a b c} Grant (1972), pp. 26–27.
105. ^ ^{a b} Roller (2010), pp. 56–57.
106. ^ Fletcher (2008), pp. 73, 92–93.
107. ^ Fletcher (2008), pp. 92–93.
108. ^ ^{a b} Roller (2010), p. 57.
109. ^ ^{a b c} Burstein (2004), pp. xx, 17.
110. ^ ^{a b} Roller (2010), p. 58.
111. ^ Fletcher (2008), pp. 94–95.
112. ^ Fletcher (2008), p. 95.
113. ^ Roller (2010), pp. 58–59.
114. ^ Burstein (2004), p. 17.
115. ^ Fletcher (2008), pp. 95–96.
116. ^ Roller (2010), p. 59.
117. ^ ^{a b c} Fletcher (2008), p. 96.
118. ^ ^{a b} Roller (2010), pp. 59–60.
119. ^ ^{a b} Fletcher (2008), pp. 97–98.
120. ^ ^{a b} Bringmann (2007), p. 259.
121. ^ ^{a b} Burstein (2004), pp. xxi, 17.
122. ^ ^{a b c} Roller (2010), p. 60.
123. ^ Fletcher (2008), p. 98.
124. ^ Jones (2006), pp. 39–43, 53.
125. ^ Burstein (2004), pp. xxi, 17–18.
126. ^ ^{a b} Roller (2010), pp. 60–61.
127. ^ Bringmann (2007), pp. 259–260.
128. ^ ^{a b} Burstein (2004), pp. xxi, 18.
129. ^ ^{a b c d e f g} Bringmann (2007), p. 260.
130. ^ Ashton (2001b), p. 164.
131. ^ ^{a b c d} Roller (2010), p. 61.
132. ^ ^{a b} Fletcher (2008), p. 100.
133. ^ ^{a b} Burstein (2004), p. 18.
134. ^ Hölbl (2001), pp. 234–235.
135. ^ Jones (2006), pp. 56–57.
136. ^ Hölbl (2001), p. 234.
137. ^ Jones (2006), pp. 57–58.
138. ^ Roller (2010), pp. 61–62.
139. ^ ^{a b c d} Hölbl (2001), p. 235.
140. ^ Fletcher (2008), pp. 112–113.
141. ^ Roller (2010), pp. 26, 62.
142. ^ ^{a b} Roller (2010), p. 62.
143. ^ Burstein (2004), pp. 18, 76.
144. ^ Burstein (2004), pp. 18–19.
145. ^ ^{a b c} Roller (2010), p. 63.
146. ^ Hölbl (2001), p. 236.
147. ^ Fletcher (2008), pp. 118–119.
148. ^ Burstein (2004), pp. xxi, 76.
149. ^ Fletcher (2008), p. 119.
150. ^ Roller (2010), pp. 62–63.
151. ^ Hölbl (2001), pp. 235–236.
152. ^ ^{a b c} Burstein (2004), p. 19.
153. ^ Roller (2010), pp. 63–64.
154. ^ Burstein (2004), pp. xxi, 19, 76.
155. ^ ^{a b c} Roller (2010), p. 64.
156. ^ Burstein (2004), pp. xxi, 19–21, 76.
157. ^ Fletcher (2008), p. 172.
158. ^ Roller (2010), pp. 64, 69.
159. ^ Burstein (2004), pp. xxi, 19–20.
160. ^ Fletcher (2008), p. 120.
161. ^ Roller (2010), pp. 64–65.
162. ^ Roller (2010), p. 65.
163. ^ ^{a b} Burstein (2004), pp. 19–20.
164. ^ Fletcher (2008), p. 125.
165. ^ ^{a b} Roller (2010), pp. 65–66.
166. ^ Fletcher (2008), p. 126.
167. ^ Roller (2010), p. 66.
168. ^ Fletcher (2008), pp. 108, 149–150.
169. ^ ^{a b c} Roller (2010), p. 67.
170. ^ Burstein (2004), p. 20.
171. ^ Fletcher (2008), p. 153.
172. ^ Roller (2010), pp. 69–70.
173. ^ ^{a b} Burstein (2004), pp. xxi, 20.
174. ^ ^{a b} Roller (2010), p. 70.
175. ^ Fletcher (2008), pp. 162–163.
176. ^ ^{a b c} Jones (2006), p. xiv.
177. ^ Roller (2010), p. 71.
178. ^ Fletcher (2008), pp. 179–182.
179. ^ Roller (2010), pp. 21, 57, 72.
180. ^ Burstein (2004), pp. xxi, 20, 64.
181. ^ Fletcher (2008), pp. 181–182.
182. ^ ^{a b} Roller (2010), p. 72.
183. ^ Fletcher (2008), pp. 194–195.
184. ^ Roller (2010), pp. 72, 126.
185. ^ ^{a b} Burstein (2004), p. 21.
186. ^ Fletcher (2008), pp. 201–202.
187. ^ ^{a b} Roller (2010), pp. 72, 175.
188. ^ Fletcher (2008), pp. 195–196, 201.
189. ^ ^{a b c} Roller (2010), pp. 72–74.
190. ^ ^{a b c} Fletcher (2008), pp. 205–206.
191. ^ ^{a b} Roller (2010), p. 74.
192. ^ ^{a b} Burstein (2004), pp. xxi, 21.
193. ^ Fletcher (2008), pp. 207–213.
194. ^ Fletcher (2008), pp. 213–214.
195. ^ Roller (2010), pp. 74–75.
196. ^ Burstein (2004), pp. xxi, 22.
197. ^ Roller (2010), pp. 77–79, Figure 6.
198. ^ ^{a b c d e f} Roller (2010), p. 75.
199. ^ Burstein (2004), pp. xxi, 21–22.
200. ^ ^{a b} Burstein (2004), p. 22.
201. ^ Burstein (2004), pp. 22–23.
202. ^ Burstein (2004), pp. xxi, 22–23.
203. ^ Roller (2010), p. 76.
204. ^ Roller (2010), pp. 76–77.
205. ^ ^{a b} Burstein (2004), pp. xxi, 23.
206. ^ Roller (2010), p. 77.
207. ^ Roller (2010), pp. 77–79.
208. ^ ^{a b} Burstein (2004), p. 23.
209. ^ ^{a b c} Roller (2010), p. 79.
210. ^ Burstein (2004), pp. xxi, 24, 76.
211. ^ ^{a b} Burstein (2004), p. 24.
212. ^ Burstein (2004), pp. xxii, 24.
213. ^ Roller (2010), pp. 79–80.
214. ^ ^{a b c d e} Burstein (2004), p. 25.
215. ^ Roller (2010), pp. 77–79, 82.
216. ^ Bivar (1983), p. 58.
217. ^ Brosius (2006), p. 96.
218. ^ Roller (2010), pp. 81–82.
219. ^ ^{a b} Roller (2010), pp. 82–83.
220. ^ ^{a b c d e f} Bringmann (2007), p. 301.
221. ^ ^{a b c} Roller (2010), p. 83.
222. ^ Roller (2010), pp. 83–84.
223. ^ Burstein (2004), pp. xxii, 25.
224. ^ ^{a b} Roller (2010), p. 84.
225. ^ Burstein (2004), p. 73.
226. ^ Roller (2010), pp. 84–85.
227. ^ ^{a b} Roller (2010), p. 85.
228. ^ Roller (2010), pp. 85–86.
229. ^ Burstein (2004), pp. xxii, 25, 73.
230. ^ ^{a b c} Roller (2010), p. 86.
231. ^ ^{a b} Roller (2010), pp. 86–87.
232. ^ ^{a b c} Burstein (2004), p. 26.
233. ^ Fletcher (2008), image plates between pp. 246–247.
234. ^ Ferroukhi (2001b), p. 242.
235. ^ ^{a b c} Roller (2003), p. 139.
236. ^ ^{a b} Roller (2010), p. 89.
237. ^ Roller (2010), pp. 89–90.
238. ^ ^{a b} Roller (2010), p. 90.
239. ^ ^{a b c d e f} Burstein (2004), pp. xxii, 25–26.
240. ^ Roller (2010), pp. 90–91.
241. ^ ^{a b c d} Burstein (2004), p. 77.
242. ^ Roller (2010), pp. 91–92.
243. ^ ^{a b} Roller (2010), p. 92.
244. ^ Roller (2010), pp. 92–93.
245. ^ Roller (2010), pp. 93–94.
246. ^ Roller (2010), pp. 94, 142.
247. ^ Roller (2010), p. 94.
248. ^ ^{a b c} Roller (2010), p. 95.
249. ^ Burstein (2004), pp. 26–27.
250. ^ ^{a b} Roller (2010), pp. 94–95.
251. ^ Roller (2010), pp. 95–96.
252. ^ ^{a b} Roller (2010), p. 96.
253. ^ ^{a b c} Roller (2010), p. 97.
254. ^ Burstein (2004), pp. xxii, 27.
255. ^ ^{a b} Burstein (2004), p. 27.
256. ^ Crawford (1974), pp. 102, 539.
257. ^ Newman (1990), pp. 50, 51 (note 29).
258. ^ ^{a b} Roller (2010), pp. 97–98.
259. ^ ^{a b} Burstein (2004), pp. 27–28.
260. ^ ^{a b} Roller (2010), p. 98.
261. ^ ^{a b c d} Roller (2010), p. 99.
262. ^ Burstein (2004), p. 28.
263. ^ Burstein (2004), pp. xxii, 28.
264. ^ Burstein (2004), pp. 28–29.
265. ^ ^{a b c} Roller (2010), pp. 133–134.
266. ^ ^{a b c d e f} Burstein (2004), p. 33.
267. ^ ^{a b c} Reece (2017), pp. 201–202.
268. ^ Roller (2010), pp. 99–100.
269. ^ Bringmann (2007), pp. 301–302.
270. ^ ^{a b c} Burstein (2004), pp. xxii, 29.
271. ^ ^{a b} Roller (2010), p. 100.
272. ^ ^{a b c d e f g} Burstein (2004), p. 29.
273. ^ Roller (2010), pp. 100–101.
274. ^ ^{a b} Roller (2010), pp. 129–130.
275. ^ Roller (2010), p. 130.
276. ^ Burstein (2004), pp. 65–66.
277. ^ Roller (2010), pp. 130–131.
278. ^ Pliny the Elder (1906), IX, ch. 58.
279. ^ Roller (2010), p. 132.
280. ^ Roller (2010), p. 133.
281. ^ ^{a b c d e f g} Roller (2010), p. 134.
282. ^ ^{a b} Bringmann (2007), p. 302.
283. ^ Bringmann (2007), pp. 302–303.
284. ^ ^{a b c d e f g h} Bringmann (2007), p. 303.
285. ^ Burstein (2004), pp. 29–30.
286. ^ ^{a b c d e f g} Roller (2010), p. 135.
287. ^ ^{a b c d e} Burstein (2004), p. 30.
288. ^ ^{a b} Roller (2010), p. 136.
289. ^ ^{a b} Burstein (2004), pp. xxii, 30.
290. ^ Jones (2006), p. 147.
291. ^ Roller (2010), pp. 136–137.
292. ^ Roller (2010), pp. 137, 139.
293. ^ ^{a b c} Bringmann (2007), pp. 303–304.
294. ^ ^{a b} Roller (2010), p. 137.
295. ^ Roller (2010), pp. 137–138.
296. ^ ^{a b c} Roller (2010), p. 138.
297. ^ ^{a b c} Roller (2010), p. 139.
298. ^ ^{a b} Roller (2010), pp. 139–140.
299. ^ ^{a b c d e f} Bringmann (2007), p. 304.
300. ^ ^{a b} Burstein (2004), pp. 30–31.
301. ^ ^{a b c d} Roller (2010), p. 140.
302. ^ Burstein (2004), pp. xxii–xxiii, 30–31.
303. ^ ^{a b c d e f g} Roller (2010), pp. 178–179.
304. ^ ^{a b} Elia (1956), pp. 3–7.
305. ^ Burstein (2004), pp. xxii–xxiii.
306. ^ Brambach (1996), p. 312.
307. ^ ^{a b c d e} Roller (2010), p. 141.
308. ^ ^{a b c d e f g h} Burstein (2004), p. 31.
309. ^ ^{a b} Roller (2010), pp. 141–142.
310. ^ ^{a b c d e} Roller (2010), p. 142.
311. ^ ^{a b c} Roller (2010), p. 143.
312. ^ Roller (2010), pp. 142–143.
313. ^ Roller (2010), pp. 143–144.
314. ^ Roller (2010), p. 144.
315. ^ ^{a b} Burstein (2004), pp. xxiii, 31.
316. ^ Roller (2010), pp. 144–145.
317. ^ ^{a b c d e f} Roller (2010), p. 145.
318. ^ ^{a b c} Southern (2009), p. 153.
319. ^ Southern (2009), pp. 153–154.
320. ^ Southern (2009), p. 154.
321. ^ Jones (2006), p. 184.
322. ^ Southern (2009), pp. 154–155.
323. ^ Jones (2006), pp. 184–185.
324. ^ ^{a b c} Roller (2010), p. 146.
325. ^ Jones (2006), pp. 185–186.
326. ^ ^{a b} Southern (2009), p. 155.
327. ^ Roller (2010), pp. 146–147, 213, footnote 83.
328. ^ Gurval (2011), p. 61.
329. ^ ^{a b c d} Roller (2010), p. 147.
330. ^ Roller (2010), pp. 147–148.
331. ^ Burstein (2004), pp. xxiii, 31–32.
332. ^ Jones (2006), p. 194.
333. ^ ^{a b} Burstein (2004), p. 65.
334. ^ ^{a b} Jones (2006), pp. 194–195.
335. ^ ^{a b} Roller (2010), pp. 148–149.
336. ^ ^{a b} Anderson (2003), p. 56.
337. ^ Roller (2010), p. 148.
338. ^ ^{a b} Burstein (2004), pp. 31–32.
339. ^ ^{a b} Roller (2010), p. 149.
340. ^ Burstein (2004), p. 32.
341. ^ Roller (2010), pp. 149–150.
342. ^ Burstein (2004), pp. xxiii, 32.
343. ^ Skeat (1953), pp. 99–100.
344. ^ Roller (2010), p. 150.
345. ^ Roller (2010), pp. 150–151.
346. ^ Jones (2006), pp. 197–198.
347. ^ Burstein (2004), pp. xxiii, 1.
348. ^ Grant (1972), pp. 5–6.
349. ^ Bringmann (2007), pp. 304–307.
350. ^ Grant (1972), pp. 6–7.
351. ^ Burstein (2004), p. 34.
352. ^ Chauveau (2000), pp. 69–71.
353. ^ Roller (2010), pp. 104, 110–113.
354. ^ Fletcher (2008), pp. 216–217.
355. ^ Burstein (2004), pp. 33–34.
356. ^ Roller (2010), pp. 103–104.
357. ^ Burstein (2004), pp. 39–41.
358. ^ Chauveau (2000), pp. 78–80.
359. ^ Roller (2010), pp. 104–105.
360. ^ Burstein (2004), pp. 37–38.
361. ^ Roller (2010), pp. 106–107.
362. ^ ^{a b} Ferroukhi (2001a), p. 219.
363. ^ ^{a b c} Kleiner (2005), pp. 155–156.
364. ^ Roller (2003), pp. 141–142.
365. ^ Walker (2001), pp. 312–313.
366. ^ ^{a b c} Roller (2010), p. 153.
367. ^ ^{a b} Burstein (2004), pp. 32, 76–77.
368. ^ ^{a b} Roller (2010), pp. 153–154.
369. ^ Roller (2010), pp. 154–155.
370. ^ ^{a b} Roller (2010), p. 155.
371. ^ Burstein (2004), pp. 32, 77.
372. ^ Burstein (2004), pp. xxiii, 32, 77.
373. ^ Roller (2010), pp. 155–156.
374. ^ Burstein (2004), pp. xxiii, 32, 77–78.
375. ^ Roller (2010), p. 156.
376. ^ Burstein (2004), pp. 32, 69, 77–78.
377. ^ ^{a b} Roller (2010), p. 151.
378. ^ ^{a b c d} Anderson (2003), p. 36.
379. ^ Roller (2010), p. 7.
380. ^ ^{a b} Roller (2010), pp. 7–8.
381. ^ Burstein (2004), pp. 67, 93.
382. ^ ^{a b} Jones (2006), p. 32.
383. ^ Roller (2010), pp. 7–8, 44.
384. ^ ^{a b c} Roller (2010), p. 8.
385. ^ ^{a b} Gurval (2011), pp. 57–58.
386. ^ ^{a b} Lippold (1936), pp. 169–171.
387. ^ ^{a b} Curtius (1933), pp. 184 ff. Abb. 3 Taf. 25–27..
388. ^ ^{a b c d e f} Roller (2010), pp. 8–9.
389. ^ Burstein (2004), p. 93.
390. ^ Jones (2006), pp. 60–62.
391. ^ ^{a b} Burstein (2004), p. 67.
392. ^ Gurval (2011), pp. 66–70.
393. ^ Gurval (2011), pp. 65–66.
394. ^ ^{a b} Anderson (2003), p. 54.
395. ^ ^{a b} Burstein (2004), p. 68.
396. ^ Chauveau (2000), pp. 2–3.
397. ^ ^{a b} Roller (2010), pp. 1–2.
398. ^ Roller (2010), p. 2.
399. ^ Burstein (2004), p. 63.
400. ^ Roller (2010), p. 3.
401. ^ Anderson (2003), pp. 37–38.
402. ^ ^{a b c} Ashton (2008), pp. 83–85.
403. ^ ^{a b c} Pina Polo (2013), pp. 186, 194, footnote 10.
404. ^ ^{a b} Roller (2010), p. 176.
405. ^ Fletcher (2008), pp. 195–196.
406. ^ Roller (2010), pp. 72, 151, 175.
407. ^ ^{a b} Varner (2004), p. 20.
408. ^ ^{a b c} Grout (2017a).
409. ^ ^{a b c d e f g h i j} Roller (2010), p. 175.
410. ^ ^{a b} Higgs (2001), pp. 208–209.
411. ^ Ashton (2008), p. 83.
412. ^ ^{a b} Fletcher (2008), p. 205.
413. ^ Meadows & Ashton (2001), p. 178.
414. ^ Roller (2010), pp. 182–186.
415. ^ Roller (2010), p. 107.
416. ^ Jones (2006), pp. 31, 34.
417. ^ ^{a b} Kleiner (2005), p. 144.
418. ^ ^{a b} Fletcher (2008), p. 104.
419. ^ Roller (2010), pp. 18, 182.
420. ^ Roller (2010), p. 185.
421. ^ ^{a b} Roller (2010), p. 182.
422. ^ ^{a b c d e f} Walker & Higgs (2017).
423. ^ ^{a b} Fletcher (2008), p. 195.
424. ^ Fletcher (2008), p. 87.
425. ^ ^{a b c d} Roller (2010), pp. 174–175.
426. ^ ^{a b} Pina Polo (2013), pp. 185–186.
427. ^ ^{a b c d} Fletcher (2008), pp. 198–199.
428. ^ Kleiner (2005), pp. 151–153, 155.
429. ^ Pina Polo (2013), pp. 184–186.
430. ^ Preston (2009), p. 305.
431. ^ ^{a b} Fletcher (2008), pp. 199–200.
432. ^ ^{a b} Ashton (2001a), p. 217.
433. ^ Roller (2010), pp. 175–176.
434. ^ ^{a b c} Walker (2008), pp. 35, 42–44.
435. ^ Walker (2008), pp. 35, 44.
436. ^ ^{a b c} Walker (2008), p. 40.
437. ^ Walker (2008), pp. 43–44.
438. ^ ^{a b c d} Pratt & Fizel (1949), pp. 14–15.
439. ^ Plutarch (1920), p. 9.
440. ^ ^{a b} Sartain (1885), pp. 41, 44.
441. ^ Roller (2010), pp. 148, 178–179.
442. ^ ^{a b} Pratt & Fizel (1949), p. 14.
443. ^ Pratt & Fizel (1949), p. 15.
444. ^ Fletcher (2008), image plates and captions between pp. 246–247.
445. ^ ^{a b c d e} Roller (2010), p. 178.
446. ^ ^{a b c} Caygill (2009), p. 146.
447. ^ Walker (2004), pp. 41–59.
448. ^ ^{a b} Ashton (2002), p. 39.
449. ^ Ashton (2002), p. 36.
450. ^ ^{a b} Kleiner (2005), p. 87.
451. ^ Roller (2010), pp. 113–114, 176–177.
452. ^ Roller (2010), pp. 113–114.
453. ^ Pina Polo (2013), p. 194, footnote 11.
454. ^ Goldsworthy (2010), p. 8.
455. ^ Ashton (2001b), p. 165.
456. ^ Anderson (2003), pp. 11–36.
457. ^ Roller (2010), pp. 6–7.
458. ^ Roller (2010), pp. 6–9.
459. ^ ^{a b} Gurval (2011), pp. 73–74.
460. ^ Anderson (2003), pp. 51–54.
461. ^ Anderson (2003), pp. 54–55.
462. ^ Preston (2009), p. 25.
463. ^ Jones (2006), pp. 271–274.
464. ^ Anderson (2003), p. 60.
465. ^ Anderson (2003), pp. 51, 60–62.
466. ^ Rowland (2011), p. 232.
467. ^ Rowland (2011), pp. 232–233.
468. ^ Woodstra, Brennan & Schrott (2005), p. 548.
469. ^ Woodstra, Brennan & Schrott (2005), p. 299.
470. ^ ^{a b} Wyke & Montserrat (2011), pp. 173–174.
471. ^ Pucci (2011), p. 201.
472. ^ Wyke & Montserrat (2011), pp. 173–177.
473. ^ Wyke & Montserrat (2011), p. 173.
474. ^ DeMaria Smith (2011), p. 161.
475. ^ Woodstra, Brennan & Schrott (2005), p. 1175.
476. ^ Jones (2006), pp. 260–263.
477. ^ Pucci (2011), pp. 198, 201.
478. ^ Hsia (2004), p. 227.
479. ^ Jones (2006), p. 325.
480. ^ Wyke & Montserrat (2011), pp. 172–173, 178.
481. ^ Wyke & Montserrat (2011), pp. 178–180.
482. ^ Wyke & Montserrat (2011), pp. 181–183.
483. ^ Wyke & Montserrat (2011), pp. 172–173.
484. ^ Pucci (2011), p. 195.
485. ^ Plant (2004), pp. 135–144.
486. ^ Rowland (2011), pp. 141–142.
487. ^ ^{a b} Roller (2010), pp. 50–51.
488. ^ Fletcher (2008), pp. 81–82.
489. ^ Musée Saint-Raymond.
490. ^ Jones (2006), pp. xiii, 3, 279.
491. ^ Southern (2009), p. 43.
492. ^ Fletcher (2008), pp. 1, 23.
493. ^ Burstein (2004), pp. 3, 34, 36, 51.
494. ^ Fletcher (2008), pp. 23, 37–42.
495. ^ Roller (2010), pp. 15–16, 164–166.
496. ^ ^{a b} Jones (2006), p. xiii.
497. ^ Dodson & Hilton (2004), p. 273.
498. ^ Burstein (2004), pp. 11, 75.
499. ^ ^{a b c} Grant (1972), p. 5.
500. ^ ^{a b} Fletcher (2008), pp. 56, 73.
501. ^ McGing (2016).
502. ^ Lendering (2020).
503. ^ Burstein (2004), pp. 69–70.
504. ^ Schiff (2011), pp. 2, 42.
505. ^ Roller (2010), pp. 15, 18, 166.
506. ^ Bradford (2000), p. 17.
507. ^ ^{a b} Roller (2010), p. 165.
508. ^ Burstein (2004), pp. 11, 69.
509. ^ Dodson & Hilton (2004), pp. 268–269, 273.
510. ^ Whitehorne (1994), p. 182.

Sources

Online

• Brown, Chip (July 2011), "The Search for Cleopatra", National Geographic, archived from the original on 10 March 2018, retrieved 27 December 2018.
• Carey, Jean Marie (n.d.). "It is possible that Mark Antony met the young Cleopatra when he served under the Roman general Gabinius in 55 BCE". italianartsociety.org. Retrieved 28 June 2023.
• "Cleopatra", Collins English Dictionary, HarperCollins, retrieved 21 May 2023.
• Fischer-Bovet, Christelle (2015). "Cleopatra VII, 69–30 BCE".
  ISBN 978-0-19-938113-5
  .
• Grout, James (1 April 2017a), "Basalt Statue of Cleopatra", Encyclopaedia Romana, University of Chicago, archived from the original on 13 February 2021, retrieved 7 March 2018.
• Grout, James (1 April 2017b), "Was Cleopatra Beautiful?", Encyclopaedia Romana, University of Chicago, archived from the original on 24 June 2013, retrieved 6 March 2018.
• Lendering, Jona (10 August 2020), "Apame I", Livius.org, archived from the original on 1 October 2020, retrieved 25 September 2020
• McGing, Brian (20 September 2016), "Pontus", Encyclopædia Iranica, archived from the original on 2 November 2020, retrieved 21 October 2020
• Muellner, Leonard, A Poetic Etymology of Pietas in the Aeneid, Center for Hellenic Studies, Harvard University, archived from the original on 9 April 2018, retrieved 9 April 2018.
• Perry, David; Williams, Tom (5 December 2019). "Causation and Cleopatra's nose". Lexology.
• Plutarch (1920), Plutarch's Lives, translated by Bernadotte Perrin, Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press (Perseus Digital Library, Tufts University), archived from the original on 7 March 2018, retrieved 8 March 2018.
• Portrait féminin (mère de Cléopâtre ?) (in French), Musée Saint-Raymond, archived from the original on 20 September 2015, retrieved 29 July 2021
• Radio 4 Programmes – A History of the World in 100 Objects, Empire Builders (300 BC – 1 AD), Rosetta Stone, BBC, archived from the original on 23 May 2010, retrieved 7 June 2010.
• Raia, Ann R.; Sebesta, Judith Lynn (September 2017), The World of State, College of New Rochelle, archived from the original on 6 March 2018, retrieved 6 March 2018.
• Reece, Steve (2017), "Cleopatra Couldn't Spell (And Neither Can We!)", in Groton, Anne Harmar (ed.), Ab Omni Parte Beatus: Classical Essays in Honor of James M. May, Mundelein, Illinois: Bolchazy-Carducci Publishers, pp. 201–220,
  OCLC 969973660, archived
  from the original on 9 July 2021, retrieved 2 September 2018.
• Sabino, Rachel; Gross-Diaz, Theresa (2016), Cat. 22 Tetradrachm Portraying Queen Cleopatra VII, Art Institute of Chicago,
  doi:10.13140/RG.2.2.23475.22560, archived
  from the original on 6 March 2018, retrieved 6 March 2018.
• Tyldesley, Joyce (6 December 2017), "Cleopatra, Queen of Egypt", Encyclopædia Britannica, archived from the original on 30 June 2019, retrieved 18 May 2018.
• Walker, Susan; Higgs, Peter (2017) [2001], Portrait Head, British Museum, archived from the original on 6 March 2018, retrieved 6 March 2018.

Print

• ISBN 978-1-876832-44-5, archived
  from the original on 7 October 2019, retrieved 15 November 2015.
• Ashton, Sally-Ann (2001a), "194 Marble head of a Ptolemaic queen with vulture headdress", in Walker, Susan; Higgs, Peter (eds.), Cleopatra of Egypt: from History to Myth, Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press (British Museum Press), p. 217,
  ISBN 978-0-691-08835-8
  .
• Ashton, Sally-Ann (2001b), "163 Limestone head of Cleopatra VII", in Walker, Susan; Higgs, Peter (eds.), Cleopatra of Egypt: from History to Myth, Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press (British Museum Press), p. 164,
  ISBN 978-0-691-08835-8
  .
• Ashton, Sally-Ann (Spring 2002), "Identifying the ROM's 'Cleopatra'", Rotunda: 36–39, archived from the original on 19 May 2020, retrieved 27 March 2018.
• Ashton, Sally-Ann (2008), Cleopatra and Egypt, Oxford: Blackwell,
  ISBN 978-1-4051-1390-8, archived
  from the original on 12 August 2020, retrieved 18 June 2020.
• Bennett, Christopher J. (1997). "Cleopatra V Tryphæna and the Genealogy of the Later Ptolemies". Ancient Society. 28: 39–66.
  JSTOR 44079777
  . (registration required)
• Bianchi, Steven (2005). "Cleopatra VII".
  The Oxford Encyclopedia of Ancient Egypt
  . Oxford University Press.
• ISBN 978-0-521-20092-9, archived
  from the original on 16 February 2020, retrieved 19 April 2018.
• ISBN 978-0-14-139014-7
  .
• Brambach, Joachim (1996) [1991], Kleopatra, Munich: Diederichs,
  ISBN 3-424-01239-4
  .
• ISBN 978-0-7456-3371-8, archived
  from the original on 12 June 2018, retrieved 7 June 2018.
• Brosius, Maria (2006), The Persians: An Introduction, London & New York: Routledge,
  ISBN 978-0-415-32089-4
  .
• ISBN 978-0-313-32527-4
  .
• Caygill, Marjorie (2009), Treasures of the British Museum, London: British Museum Press (Trustees of the British Museum),
  ISBN 978-0-7141-5062-8
  .
• Chauveau, Michel (2000) [1997], Egypt in the Age of Cleopatra: History and Society Under the Ptolemies, translated by David Lorton, Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press,
  ISBN 978-0-8014-8576-3, archived
  from the original on 19 May 2020, retrieved 12 April 2018.
• Cheshire, Wendy (2011), "The Phantom Sister of Ptolemy Alexander", Enchoria, 32: 120–130.
• Cordry, Harold V. (1998). A Dictionary of American English Pronunciation. Austin & Winfield.
  ISBN 978-1-57292-055-2
  .
• ISBN 978-0-521-07492-6
  .
• OCLC 633408511
  .
• DeMaria Smith, Margaret Mary (2011), "HRH Cleopatra: the Last of the Ptolemies and the Egyptian Paintings of Sir Lawrence Alma-Tadema", in Miles, Margaret M. (ed.), Cleopatra : a sphinx revisited, Berkeley: University of California Press, pp. 150–171,
  ISBN 978-0-520-24367-5, archived
  from the original on 24 March 2023, retrieved 18 June 2020.
• ISBN 978-0-500-05128-3
  .
• Dudley, Donald (1960), The Civilization of Rome, New York: New American Library,
  ISBN 978-1-258-45054-0
  .
• Elia, Olga (1956) [1955], "La tradizione della morte di Cleopatra nella pittura pompeiana", Rendiconti dell'Accademia di Archeologia, Lettere e Belle Arti (in Italian), 30: 3–7,
  OCLC 848857115
  .
• Ferroukhi, Mafoud (2001a), "197 Marble portrait, perhaps of Cleopatra VII's daughter, Cleopatra Selene, Queen of Mauretania", in Walker, Susan; Higgs, Peter (eds.), Cleopatra of Egypt: from History to Myth, Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press (British Museum Press), p. 219,
  ISBN 978-0-691-08835-8
  .
• Ferroukhi, Mafoud (2001b), "262 Veiled head from a marble portrait statue", in Walker, Susan; Higgs, Peter (eds.), Cleopatra of Egypt: from History to Myth, Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press (British Museum Press), p. 242,
  ISBN 978-0-691-08835-8
  .
• ISBN 978-0-06-058558-7
  .
• ISBN 978-0-300-16534-0
  .
• ISBN 978-0-297-99502-9
  .
• Gurval, Robert A. (2011), "Dying Like a Queen: the Story of Cleopatra and the Asp(s) in Antiquity", in Miles, Margaret M. (ed.), Cleopatra : a sphinx revisited, Berkeley: University of California Press, pp. 54–77,
  ISBN 978-0-520-24367-5, archived
  from the original on 24 March 2023, retrieved 18 June 2020.
• Higgs, Peter (2001), "Searching for Cleopatra's image: classical portraits in stone", in Walker, Susan; Higgs, Peter (eds.), Cleopatra of Egypt: from History to Myth, Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press (British Museum Press), pp. 200–209,
  ISBN 978-0-691-08835-8
  .
• ISBN 978-90-04-08612-8, archived
  from the original on 7 October 2019, retrieved 30 March 2018.
• Hölbl, Günther (2001) [1994], A History of the Ptolemaic Empire, translated by Tina Saavedra, London: Routledge,
  ISBN 978-0-415-20145-2
  .
• ISBN 978-0-231-12990-9, archived
  from the original on 19 May 2020, retrieved 29 March 2018.
• Jeffreys, David (1999), "Memphis", in Bard, Kathryn A. (ed.), Encyclopedia of the Archaeology of Ancient Egypt, London: Routledge, pp. 488–490,
  ISBN 978-0-415-18589-9, archived
  from the original on 1 November 2017, retrieved 2 November 2018.
• Johnson, Janet H. (1999), "Late and Ptolemaic periods, overview", in Bard, Kathryn A. (ed.), Encyclopedia of the Archaeology of Ancient Egypt, London: Routledge, pp. 66–72,
  ISBN 978-0-415-18589-9, archived
  from the original on 1 November 2017, retrieved 2 November 2018.
• Jones, Prudence J. (2006), Cleopatra: a sourcebook, Norman: University of Oklahoma Press,
  ISBN 978-0-8061-3741-4, archived
  from the original on 24 December 2019, retrieved 27 March 2018.
• ISBN 978-1-887829-18-2
• ISBN 978-0-674-01905-8, archived
  from the original on 11 May 2020, retrieved 6 March 2018.
• Lippert, Sandra (2013), "What's New in Demotic Studies? An Overview of the Publications 2010–2013" (PDF), The Journal of Juristic Papyrology: 33–48.
• OCLC 803204281, archived
  from the original on 24 March 2023, retrieved 3 November 2018.
• Meadows, Andrew (2001), "Sins of the fathers: the inheritance of Cleopatra, last queen of Egypt", in Walker, Susan; Higgs, Peter (eds.), Cleopatra of Egypt: from History to Myth, Princeton, New Jersey: British Museum Press, pp. 14–31,
  ISBN 978-071411943-4
• Meadows, Andrew; Ashton, Sally-Ann (2001), "186 Bronze coin of Cleopatra VII", in Walker, Susan; Higgs, Peter (eds.), Cleopatra of Egypt: from History to Myth, Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press (British Museum Press), p. 178,
  ISBN 978-0-691-08835-8
  .
• Newman, Robert (1990). "A Dialogue of Power in the Coinage of Antony and Octavian (44–30 B.C.)".
  JSTOR 43580166
  .
• Pascal, Blaise (1910). Pensées . Translated by William Finlayson Trotter. New York: P. F. Collier & Son.
• Pfrommer, Michael; Towne-Markus, Elana (2001), Greek Gold from Hellenistic Egypt, Getty Museum Studies on Art, Los Angeles: Getty Publications (J. Paul Getty Trust),
  ISBN 978-0-89236-633-0, archived
  from the original on 22 June 2018, retrieved 22 June 2018.
• Pina Polo, Francisco (2013), "The Great Seducer: Cleopatra, Queen and Sex Symbol", in Knippschild, Silke; García Morcillo, Marta (eds.), Seduction and Power: Antiquity in the Visual and Performing Arts, London: Bloomsbury Academic, pp. 183–197,
  ISBN 978-1-4411-9065-9, archived
  from the original on 23 June 2019, retrieved 9 March 2018.
• Plant, Ian Michael (2004), "39. Cleopatra (fl. after AD 64)", Women Writers of Ancient Greece and Rome: An Anthology, Equinox, pp. 135–144,
  ISBN 978-1-904768-02-9, archived
  from the original on 24 March 2023, retrieved 27 May 2022
• Pliny the Elder (1906). "IX, ch. 58". In Karl Friedrich Theodor Mayhoff [in German] (ed.). Natural History. Leipzig: Teubner. Archived from the original on 20 June 2020. Retrieved 20 February 2021 – via Perseus Digital Library.
• Pratt, Frances; Fizel, Becca (1949), Encaustic Materials and Methods, New York: Lear Publishers,
  OCLC 560769, archived
  from the original on 19 May 2020, retrieved 7 March 2018.
• ISBN 978-0300259384
  .
• Preston, Diana (2009), Cleopatra and Antony: Power, Love, and Politics in the Ancient World, New York: Walker and Company,
  ISBN 978-0-8027-1738-2, archived
  from the original on 19 May 2020, retrieved 18 June 2018.
• Pucci, Giuseppe (2011), "Every Man's Cleopatra", in Miles, Margaret M. (ed.), Cleopatra : a sphinx revisited, Berkeley: University of California Press, pp. 195–207,
  ISBN 978-0-520-24367-5, archived
  from the original on 24 March 2023, retrieved 18 June 2020.
• ISBN 978-0-415-30596-9
  .
• ISBN 978-0-19-536553-5
  .
• ISBN 978-0-520-24367-5, archived
  from the original on 24 March 2023, retrieved 18 June 2020.
• Royster, Francesca T. (2003), Becoming Cleopatra: The Shifting Image of an Icon, New York: Palgrave MacMillan,
  ISBN 978-1-4039-6109-9
• OCLC 3806143
  .
• ISBN 978-0-7535-3956-9
  .
• S2CID 162835002
  .
• ISBN 978-0-415-62838-9, archived
  from the original on 19 May 2020, retrieved 19 April 2018.
• ISBN 978-1-84868-324-2, archived
  from the original on 19 May 2020, retrieved 22 April 2018.
• Varner, Eric R. (2004), Mutilation and Transformation: Damnatio Memoriae and Roman Imperial Portraiture, Leiden: E. J. Brill,
  ISBN 978-90-04-13577-2, archived
  from the original on 26 April 2017, retrieved 6 March 2018.
• Walker, Susan (2004), The Portland Vase, British Museum Objects in Focus, British Museum Press,
  ISBN 978-0-7141-5022-2, archived
  from the original on 19 May 2020, retrieved 27 March 2018.
• Walker, Susan (2008). "Cleopatra in Pompeii?".
  JSTOR 40311128
  .
• Walker, Susan (2001), "324 Gilded silver dish, decorated with a bust perhaps representing Cleopatra Selene", in Walker, Susan; Higgs, Peter (eds.), Cleopatra of Egypt: from History to Myth, Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press (British Museum Press), pp. 312–313,
  ISBN 978-0-691-08835-8
  .
• Walker, Susan; Higgs, Peter (2001), "325 Painting with a portrait of a woman in profile", in Walker, Susan; Higgs, Peter (eds.), Cleopatra of Egypt: from History to Myth, Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press (British Museum Press), pp. 314–315,
  ISBN 978-0-691-08835-8
  .
• Whitehorne, John (1994), Cleopatras, London: Routledge,
  ISBN 978-0-415-05806-3
• Woodstra, Chris; Brennan, Gerald; Schrott, Allen (2005), All Music Guide to Classical Music: The Definitive Guide to Classical Music, Ann Arbor, MI: All Media Guide (Backbeat Books),
  ISBN 978-0-87930-865-0, archived
  from the original on 19 May 2020, retrieved 27 March 2018.
• ISBN 978-0-520-24367-5, archived
  from the original on 24 March 2023, retrieved 18 June 2020.

Further reading

• Bianchi, Robert S.; Fazzini, Richard A., eds. (1988). Cleopatra's Egypt: Age of the Ptolemies. Brooklyn Museum.
  ISBN 978-0872731134
  .
• Carlà-Uhink, Filippo; Weiber, Anja, eds. (2020). Orientalism and the Reception of Powerful Women from the Ancient World. Bloomsbury Academic.
  ISBN 978-1350050105
  .
• Roberta Casagrande-Kim, ed. (2014). When the Greeks Ruled Egypt: From Alexander the Great to Cleopatra.
  ISBN 978-0691165547
  .
• Chauveau, Michel (2004). Cleopatra: Beyond the Myth. Cornell University Press.
  ISBN 978-0-8014-8953-2
  .
• Crawford, Amy (31 March 2007), Who Was Cleopatra? Mythology, propaganda, Liz Taylor and the real Queen of the Nile,
  Smithsonian
  , retrieved 29 April 2023.
• Daugherty, Gregory N. (2022). The Reception of Cleopatra in the Age of Mass Media. Bloomsbury Academic.
  ISBN 978-0060920937
  .
• Flamarion, Edith (1997). Cleopatra: The Life and Death of a Pharaoh. "
  ISBN 978-0-8109-2805-3
  .
• Foss, Michael (1999). The Search for Cleopatra. Arcade Publishing.
  ISBN 978-1-55970-503-5
  .
• Fraser, P. M. (1985). Ptolemaic Alexandria. Vol. 1–3 (reprint ed.). Oxford: Oxford University Press.
  ISBN 978-0-19-814278-2
  .
• Holland, Barbara (February 1997), Cleopatra: What Kind of a Woman Was She, Anyway?,
  Smithsonian
  , retrieved 29 April 2023.
• Hughes-Hallett, Lucy (1991). Cleopatra: Histories, Dreams and Distortions. HarperCollins.
  ISBN 978-0-060-92093-7
  .
• Jones, Prudence J. (2006). Cleopatra: The Last Pharaoh. American University in Cairo Press.
  ISBN 978-9774249938
  .
• OCLC 671705946
  .
• Nardo, Don (1994). Cleopatra. Lucent Books.
  ISBN 978-1-56006-023-9
  .
• Pomeroy, Sarah B. (1984). Women in Hellenistic Egypt: from Alexander to Cleopatra. New York: Schocken Books.
  ISBN 978-0-8052-3911-9
  .
• Samson, Julia (1990). Nefertiti & Cleopatra. Stacey International.
  ISBN 978-0-948695-18-6
  .
• Southern, Pat (2000). Cleopatra. Tempus.
  ISBN 978-0-7524-1494-2
  .
• OCLC 404094
  .
• Tyldesley, Joyce (2008). Cleopatra: Last Queen of Egypt. Basic Books.
  ISBN 978-0-465-01892-5
  .
• Volkmann, Hans (1958). Cleopatra: a Study in Politics and Propaganda. Translated by T. J. Cadoux. New York: Sagamore Press.
  OCLC 899077769
  .
• Watterson, Barbara (2020). Cleopatra: Fact and Fiction. Amberley Publishing.
  ISBN 978-1-445-66965-6
  .
• Weigall, Arthur E. P. Brome (1914). The Life and Times of Cleopatra, Queen of Egypt. Edinburgh: Blackwood.
  OCLC 316294139
  .

External links

• Ancient Roman depictions of Cleopatra VII of Egypt, at YouTube
• Cleopatra on In Our Time at the BBC
• Jacob Abbott (1852). Cleopatra at Project Gutenberg, a Victorian children's book
• "Mysterious Death of Cleopatra" at the Discovery Channel
• Cleopatra VII at BBC History
• Cleopatra VII at World History Encyclopedia
• Eubanks, W. Ralph. (1 November 2010). "How History and Hollywood Got 'Cleopatra' Wrong".
  National Public Radio (NPR) (a book review of Cleopatra: A Life, by Stacy Schiff
  ).
• Jarus, Owen (13 March 2014). "Cleopatra: Facts & Biography". Live Science.
• Watkins, Thayer. "The Timeline of the Life of Cleopatra Archived 13 August 2021 at the Wayback Machine." San Jose State University.
• Draycott, Jane (22 May 2018). "Cleopatra's Daughter: While Antony and Cleopatra have been immortalised in history and in popular culture, their offspring have been all but forgotten. Their daughter, Cleopatra Selene, became an important ruler in her own right". History Today.

Cleopatra Ptolemaic dynasty Born: 69 BC Died: 30 BC
Regnal titles
Preceded by Ptolemy XII	Ptolemy XV	Office abolished Egypt annexed by Roman Republic

Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Cleopatra&oldid=1175704477"