Cleopatra Selene of Syria

Cleopatra Selene (

Following the marriage of the Syrian

The same year, 107 BC, Cleopatra Selene was probably married off to the new king, her younger brother, Ptolemy X.[36] In 103 BC, Ptolemy IX was fighting in Judea.^[37] The queen mother feared an alliance against her between Ptolemy IX and his friend Antiochus IX of Syria, who was fighting a civil war with his brother Antiochus VIII; this led her to send troops to Syria.^[35] Cleopatra III and Ptolemy X conquered Ptolemais, and according to Justin, the king, shocked by his mother's cruelty, abandoned her and ran away; Cleopatra III then decided to marry Cleopatra Selene to Antiochus VIII,^[38] as a step to bring Antiochus VIII to her side in order to counter an alliance between Ptolemy IX and Antiochus IX.^[35] If it is accepted that Cleopatra Selene married Ptolemy X, then Cleopatra III divorced her from him after he deserted.^{[note 3][38][36]}

Queen of Syria

Queen consort

The marriage of Cleopatra Selene and Antiochus VIII took place c. 102 BC;^[41][38] historian Leo Kadman suggested that Cleopatra III gave her daughter to the Syrian king in Ptolemais before she retreated to Egypt, and that Cleopatra Selene kept that city as her main base until the end of her life.^[42] Details of Cleopatra Selene's life with Antiochus VIII are not clear; no known offspring resulted from the marriage,^[43] though six of Antiochus VIII's children from his previous marriage are known.^[44] In 96 BC, Herakleon of Beroia, a general of Antiochus VIII, assassinated his monarch and tried to usurp the throne, but failed and retreated to his home-town Beroia.^{[note 4][47]} The capital of Syria, Antioch, was part of Antiochus VIII's realm at the time of his assassination; Cleopatra Selene probably resided there.^{[note 5][49]}

The queen held out in the capital for a while before marrying Antiochus IX.

In 218 SE (95/94 BC),

Cleopatra Selene's location during the reign of Antiochus X's successors in Antioch is unknown. She evidently took shelter with her children somewhere in the kingdom,

According to Josephus, "those that held Damascus" invited Aretas III, King of the Nabataeans, to rule them because they feared Ptolemy (son of Mennaeus), king of the Iturea.^[66] Damascus' history between the death of Antiochus XII and 241 SE (72/71 BC), when the Armenian king Tigranes II took the city, is obscure.^[73] Based on her jugate coins which depict her alongside Antiochus XIII, Hoover suggested that Selene operated from Damascus;^[67] those coins used a broken-bar Alpha, cursive Epsilon and squared Sigma.^[74] This typography appeared in the Damascene coins of Demetrius III and Antiochus XII and is otherwise rare in the Hellenistic world.^[74] If her currency was minted in Damascus,^{[note 9]} then it dates to the period between the death of Antiochus XII and Tigranes II's occupation of the city.^[73] Two scenarios are possible:

• Cleopatra Selene took Damascus after Antiochus XII's death and was replaced by Aretas III before 73 BC:^[66] Josephus does not name the people of Damascus as the party who invited Aretas III, rather, his words indicate that a garrison or a governor conducted the act.^[75] All known coins of Cleopatra Selene are made of bronze, and the absence of silver coinage indicates that the queen lacked the necessary resources to defend Damascus, which would explain the invitation of Aretas III.^[67] It is also possible that Cleopatra Selene moved her capital to Ptolemais, causing her troops in Damascus to lose faith in her rule, leading them to invite the Nabataean king.^[17]
• Aretas III's rule in Damascus did not last long before Cleopatra Selene took control:^[73] Wright suggested that Cleopatra Selene's takeover of Damascus took place after 80 BC.^[76] Several factors might have compelled the Nabataeans to withdraw, such as the Ituraean threats or the attacks of the Hasmonean Judaean king Alexander Jannaeus, whose incursions into Nabataean lands must have made their position in Damascus difficult.^[77]

Claiming the north

In the north, Philip I ruled until his death, after which Cleopatra Selene claimed the rights of her children with Antiochus X to the vacant throne.^[62] The queen's claims of authority were not generally accepted by the Syrians, and the people of Antioch invited Tigranes II to rule Syria, being frustrated by the Seleucids' constant civil wars.^[78] The year in which this event took place is debated; 83 BC is, without any proof, commonly accepted as Philip I's year of death by the majority of scholars who count on the account of Appian, who assigned a reign of fourteen years for Tigranes II, which ended in 69 BC.^[79] Oliver D. Hoover suggested that Tigranes II invaded Syria only in 74 BC, with Philip I ruling until 75 BC in Northern Syria, allowing Cleopatra Selene and Antiochus XIII to claim the country unopposed for a while. An argument in favour of Cleopatra Selene and her son being the sole claimants of Syria in 75 BC is a statement by Cicero: the Roman statesman wrote that Antiochus XIII and his brother were sent to Rome by their mother in 75 BC.^[80] They returned to Syria in 240 SE (73/72 BC);^[81] the brothers claimed the throne of Egypt based on their mother's birthright. To impress the Roman Senate, the queen endowed her children with sufficient assets, which included a jewelled candelabrum that was dedicated to the temple of Jupiter Capitolinus.^[72] The Senate refused to hear their petition for the Egyptian throne, but, according to Cicero, their de jure right to the Syrian throne which they had inherited from their ancestors was already acknowledged.^[82]

The statement of Cicero indicates that in 75 BC, Tigranes II was still not in control of Syria, for if he were, Antiochus XIII would have asked the Roman Senate for support to regain Syria, since Tigranes II was the son-in-law of Rome's enemy,

The regency of Cleopatra Selene probably ended in 75 BC as the journey of Antiochus XIII to Rome indicates that he had already reached his majority or was close to it.[86] Tigranes II, whose invasion probably took place during Antiochus XIII's absence,^[81] never controlled the entire country and took Damascus only in 72 BC.^[72] Cleopatra Selene resisted the Armenians in Ptolemais while Antiochus XIII probably took shelter in Cilicia.^[81] In 69 BC, Tigranes II besieged Ptolemais; the city fell according to Josephus, but Tigranes II had to move north fast as the Romans started attacking Armenia.^[24] According to Strabo, Tigranes II imprisoned the queen in Seleucia and later had her killed.^[87] Those accounts seem to contradict each other, but in the view of the seventeenth century historian William Whiston, they do not, since Josephus does not mention that Tigranes II captured the queen in Ptolemais.^[88] Historian John D. Grainger explained Tigranes II's action as a consequence of Cleopatra Selene's political importance; she was a winning card in the hands of her husbands, and Tigranes II sought to deny other ambitious men from acquiring influence through her.^[89] Others see Cleopatra Selene as a pawn in political schemes who later evolved into a schemer in her own right, one who decided her actions effectively based on her own benefit.^[90]

Cleopatra Selene's long career, as the wife of three successive Syrian monarchs, and the mother of one and a ruler in her own right, in addition to her divine status, turned her into a symbol of Seleucid continuity.

• According to Justin, Cleopatra Selene and Ptolemy IX had two children;[93] the historian John Whitehorne noted that the existence of those two children is doubted and they might have died at a young age.^[94] In 103 BC, Cleopatra III sent all her grandsons and treasures to the island of Kos for protection in preparation for her war with Ptolemy IX.^[35] In 88 BC, Mithridates VI captured all the Egyptian royals in Kos; the two children of Cleopatra Selene mentioned by Justin, if they actually existed and were sent to Kos by Cleopatra III, would have been among the captured.^[95]
• morganatic (a marriage between people of unequal social rank),^[102] since it was not acceptable that a Ptolemaic prince marry his sister prior to his ascension to the throne.^{[note 11][103]}
  The historian Christopher J. Bennett considered Ptolemy XII and his brother identical with the two children mentioned by Justin,^{[note 12]} but proposed that they were the children of Cleopatra IV, considered illegitimate because of their parents' "morganatic" marriage.^[107] Hence, Cleopatra Selene was not the biological mother, rather, she was the official mother, thus explaining her attempt to raise one of her sons by Antiochus X to the throne of Egypt in 75 BC by repudiating Ptolemy XII's legitimacy.^{[note 13][108]} Whitehorne, citing Cleopatra Selene's denial of Ptolemy XII's illegitimacy, refused to identify Ptolemy XII and his brother as the two children mentioned in Justin's work.^[106]
• Cleopatra Berenice (Berenice III), whose mother's identity is not certain, might have been a daughter of Cleopatra Selene, but Cleopatra IV is also a candidate and is favoured by modern scholarship.^[109] Bennett noted that Berenice III's legitimacy was never questioned by ancient historians, and the illegitimacy of Ptolemy IX and Cleopatra IV's marriage makes it more probable that Berenice III was the result of a legitimate marriage, that is between her father and Cleopatra Selene.^[110]

Identifying Antiochus X and Cleopatra Selene's children is problematic; Cicero wrote that the queen had two sons, one of them named Antiochus.[112] More children, perhaps a daughter, might have resulted from the marriage, but it can not be confirmed;^[113] according to Plutarch, Tigranes II "put to death the successors of Seleucus, and [carried] off their wives and daughters into captivity".^[114] Thus, it is possible that Cleopatra Selene had a daughter captured by Tigranes II.^[115]

• Antiochus XIII: this son is the Antiochus of Cicero,^[114] who, as a sole monarch following his mother's death, appears on his coins as Antiochus Philadelphos ("brother-loving"), but on coins where Cleopatra Selene is depicted along with her ruling son, the king is named Antiochus Philometor ("mother-loving"). This has led scholars to propose various theories: Kay Ehling, reasserting the view of Bouché-Leclercq, suggested that Cleopatra Selene had two sons, both named Antiochus.^[69] But Cicero, who left one of the brothers unnamed, is clear that only one of them was named Antiochus;^[112] for Ehling's proposal to be valid, Antiochus Philometor should be the Antiochus mentioned by Cicero, then he died and his brother, who had a different name, assumed the dynastic name Antiochus with the epithet Philadelphos, but this scenario is complicated and remains a mere hypothesis.^[114] Thus, Antiochus XIII bore two epithets: Philadelphos and Philometor.^[116]
• Seleucus Kybiosaktes: the second son of Cleopatra Selene, who was unnamed by Cicero and does not appear in other ancient sources,
  Berenice IV of Egypt.^[117] Kybiosaktes was never associated with Cleopatra Selene in the ancient sources; solid evidence is lacking and the identification remains a theory.^{[note 14][117]}
• Seleucus VII: in 2002, the numismatist Brian Kritt announced the discovery and decipherment of a coin bearing the portrait of Cleopatra Selene and a co-ruler;^[119][120] Kritt read the name of the ruler as Seleucus Philometor and, based on the epithet, identified him with Cleopatra Selene's son, unnamed by Cicero.^[118] Kritt gave the newly discovered ruler the regnal name Seleucus VII, and considered it very likely that he is identical with Kybiosaktes.^[121] The reading of "Seleucus VII" was accepted by some scholars such as Lloyd Llewellyn Jones and Michael Roy Burgess,^[36][70] but Hoover rejected Kritt's reading, noting that the coin was badly damaged and some letters were unreadable; Hoover read the king's name as Antiochus and identified him with Antiochus XIII.^[120] According to Wright, if the reading of Kritt is accepted, then it is possible that Cleopatra Selene became estranged from Antiochus XIII at some point before 75 BC and declared Seleucus VII as her co-ruler.^{[note 15][122]}

• List of Syrian monarchs
• Timeline of Syrian history

Notes

References

Citations

1. ISBN 978-1-57607-585-2
   .
2. ISBN 978-1-4381-0794-3
   .
3. ^ Biers 1992, p. 13.
4. ^ Marciak 2017, p. 8.
5. ^ Thompson 1994, p. 318.
6. ^ Goodman 2005, p. 37.
7. ^ Tinsley 2006, p. 179.
8. ^ Whitehorne 1994, p. 81.
9. ^ Whitehorne 1994, p. 149.
10. ^ Kelly 2016, p. 82.
11. ^ Kosmin 2014, p. 23.
12. ^ ^{a b} Llewellyn Jones 2013, p. 1572.
13. ^ Green 1990, p. 548.
14. ^ Cicero 1856, p. 426.
15. ^ Appian 1912, p. 237.
16. ^ Strabo 1857, p. 161.
17. ^ ^{a b} Houghton, Lorber & Hoover 2008, p. 614.
18. ^ ^{a b} Wright 2012, p. 67.
19. ^ ^{a b} Bellinger 1952, p. 53.
20. ^ Kerényi 1951, p. 196.
21. ^ Whitehorne 1994, p. 143.
22. ^ Whitehorne 1994, p. 1.
23. ^ ^{a b c} Siani-Davies 1997, p. 309.
24. ^ ^{a b} Burgess 2004, p. 21.
25. ^ Boiy 2004, p. 180.
26. ^ Dumitru 2016, p. 253.
27. ^ Carney 2013, p. 74.
28. ^ Carney 1987, p. 434.
29. ^ Ashton 2003, p. 65.
30. ^ Bennett 1997, p. 43.
31. ^ Whitehorne 1994, p. 165.
32. ^ ^{a b} Bennett 1997, p. 44.
33. ^ Whitehorne 1994, p. 134.
34. ^ Ogden 1999, p. 94.
35. ^ ^{a b c d} Whitehorne 1994, p. 139.
36. ^ ^{a b c d} Llewellyn Jones 2013, p. 1573.
37. ^ Whitehorne 1994, p. 138.
38. ^ ^{a b c} Dumitru 2016, p. 258.
39. ^ Atkinson 2012, p. 117.
40. ^ Bennett 2002.
41. ^ Kuhn 1891, p. 23.
42. ^ ^{a b} Kadman 1961, p. 21.
43. ^ ^{a b c} Dumitru 2016, p. 260.
44. ^ Chrubasik 2016, p. XXIV.
45. ^ Houghton & Müseler 1990, p. 61.
46. ^ Hoover 2007, p. 286.
47. ^ Dumitru 2016, pp. 260, 261.
48. ^ Whitehorne 1994, p. 167.
49. ^ ^{a b c d} Dumitru 2016, p. 261.
50. ^ ^{a b} Dumitru 2016, p. 262.
51. ^ ^{a b} Dumitru 2016, p. 263.
52. ^ ^{a b} Dumitru 2016, p. 264.
53. ^ Whitehorne 1994, p. 168.
54. ^ Macurdy 1932, p. 172.
55. ^ Lorber & Iossif 2009, p. 102.
56. ^ Ehling 2008, p. 239.
57. ^ Dumitru 2016, p. 2634.
58. ^ Hoover 2007, p. 290.
59. ^ ^{a b} Dumitru 2016, p. 265.
60. ^ Hoover 2007, p. 294.
61. ^ Hoover 2007, pp. 295, 296.
62. ^ ^{a b c} Bellinger 1949, p. 79.
63. ^ Hoover 2011, p. 260.
64. ^ Whitehorne 1994, p. 169.
65. ^ Hoover, Houghton & Veselý 2008, p. 214.
66. ^ ^{a b c d} Houghton, Lorber & Hoover 2008, p. 613.
67. ^ ^{a b c} Houghton, Lorber & Hoover 2008, p. 616.
68. ^ ^{a b} Dumitru 2016, p. 266.
69. ^ ^{a b} Dumitru 2016, p. 267.
70. ^ ^{a b c} Burgess 2004, p. 20.
71. ^ ^{a b c} Burgess 2004, p. 24.
72. ^ ^{a b c} Bellinger 1949, p. 81.
73. ^ ^{a b c} Hoover 2005, p. 99.
74. ^ ^{a b c} Hoover 2005, p. 98.
75. ^ Houghton, Lorber & Hoover 2008, p. 613, 614.
76. ^ Wright 2010, p. 253.
77. ^ Shatzman 1991, p. 123.
78. ^ Bellinger 1949, p. 80.
79. ^ Hoover 2007, p. 296.
80. ^ Hoover 2007, p. 297.
81. ^ ^{a b c} Houghton, Lorber & Hoover 2008, p. 617.
82. ^ ^{a b c} Kritt 2002, p. 26.
83. ^ Hoover 2007, pp. 297, 298.
84. ^ Houghton, Lorber & Hoover 2008, p. 596.
85. ^ Overtoom 2017.
86. ^ ^{a b} Houghton, Lorber & Hoover 2008, p. 615.
87. ^ Bellinger 1949, p. 82.
88. ^ Josephus 1833, p. 640.
89. ^ Grainger 1997, p. 45.
90. ^ Dumitru 2016, p. 271.
91. ^ Strootman 2010, p. 153.
92. ^ Strootman 2010, p. 154.
93. ^ Justin 1742, p. 282.
94. ^ ^{a b c d} Whitehorne 1994, p. 176.
95. ^ Whitehorne 1994, p. 224.
96. ^ ^{a b} Fletcher 2008, p. 353.
97. ^ ^{a b} Otto & Bengtson 1938, p. 117.
98. ^ ^{a b} Sullivan 1990, p. 92.
99. ^ Bianchi 2003, p. 13.
100. ^ Ager 2005, p. 7.
101. ^ Mahaffy 1899, p. 225.
102. ^ Mahaffy 1899, p. 211.
103. ^ ^{a b} Bennett 1997, p. 45.
104. ^ Bennett 1997, p. 46.
105. ^ Whitehorne 1994, p. 178.
106. ^ ^{a b} Whitehorne 1994, p. 179.
107. ^ Bennett 1997, p. 52.
108. ^ Bennett 1997, pp. 47, 48, 52.
109. ^ Llewellyn-Jones 2013, p. 1567.
110. ^ Bennett 1997, p. 54.
111. ^ ^{a b} Bennett 1997, pp. 55, 56.
112. ^ ^{a b} Dumitru 2016, p. 268.
113. ^ Dumitru 2016, pp. 269, 270.
114. ^ ^{a b c} Dumitru 2016, p. 269.
115. ^ Dumitru 2016, p. 270.
116. ^ Houghton, Lorber & Hoover 2008, p. 618.
117. ^ ^{a b} Kritt 2002, pp. 26, 27.
118. ^ ^{a b} Kritt 2002, p. 27.
119. ^ Kritt 2002, p. 25.
120. ^ ^{a b} Hoover 2005, p. 95.
121. ^ Kritt 2002, p. 28.
122. ^ Wright 2012, p. 12.

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• Overtoom, Nikolaus (6 January 2017). Civil War in Syria: The Rise and Fall of the Last Seleucid Queen Cleopatra Selene. The 131st Annual Meeting. Room 302 Colorado Convention Center: American Historical Association.{{cite conference}}: CS1 maint: location (link)
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• Shatzman, Israel (1991). The Armies of the Hasmoneans and Herod: From Hellenistic to Roman Frameworks. Texte und Studien zum Antiken Judentum. Vol. 25. J.C.B. Mohr (Paul Siebeck).
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External links

Wikimedia Commons has media related to Cleopatra Selene I.

• An engraved gem from the
  Cabinet des Médailles
  ' collection. Inventory number: inv.58.1476; the engraved portraits could be depictions of Cleopatra Selene and Antiochus IX.
• One of Cleopatra Selene and Antiochus XIII's jugate coins exhibited in "The Seleucid Coins Addenda System (SCADS)" website maintained by Oliver D. Hoover.

Cleopatra Selene of Syria Ptolemaic dynasty Born: c. 135–130 BC Died: 69 BC
Royal titles
Preceded by Cleopatra IV	Queen consort of Egypt 115–107 BC 107–102 BC	Succeeded by Berenice III
Preceded by Tryphaena	Queen consort of Syria 102–96 BC 95 BC 95–92 BC	Succeeded by Uncertain
Regnal titles
Preceded by Antiochus XII Philip I	Queen regnant of Syria 82–69 BC with Philip I (82–75 BC) Antiochus XIII (82–69 BC)	Succeeded by Antiochus XIII